From 4e21188efeca88bac1c326e4ae9726a0732e5ef6 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: James Jackson-South <james_south@hotmail.com>
Date: Wed, 26 Feb 2025 14:35:54 +1000
Subject: [PATCH] Fix all known quantizing issues

---
 src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.cs          |  29 +
 src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.tt          |  38 +
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Bmp/BmpMetadata.cs     |   3 +-
 .../Formats/Cur/CurFrameMetadata.cs           |   1 +
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurMetadata.cs     |   3 +-
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/EncodingUtilities.cs   |  39 +-
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifDecoderCore.cs  | 141 +++-
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderCore.cs  |  93 ++-
 .../Formats/Gif/GifFrameMetadata.cs           |   3 +-
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifMetadata.cs     |  12 +-
 .../Formats/IFormatFrameMetadata.cs           |   6 +-
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatMetadata.cs     |   8 +-
 .../Formats/IQuantizingImageEncoder.cs        |   4 +-
 .../Formats/Ico/IcoFrameMetadata.cs           |   1 +
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoMetadata.cs     |   3 +-
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoder.cs      |  12 -
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoderCore.cs  | 246 +++---
 src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngMetadata.cs     |   3 +-
 .../Formats/TransparentColorMode.cs           |   2 +-
 .../Formats/Webp/BitReader/BitReaderBase.cs   |   2 +-
 .../Formats/Webp/Lossy/Vp8Decoder.cs          |  14 +-
 .../Formats/Webp/WebpAnimationDecoder.cs      | 110 ++-
 .../Formats/Webp/WebpCommonUtils.cs           |   2 +-
 src/ImageSharp/ImageSharp.csproj              |  14 +
 src/ImageSharp/IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}.cs   |   4 +-
 .../CloningImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs          |   6 +-
 .../Processors/Dithering/IDither.cs           |   4 +-
 .../IPaletteDitherImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs   |   8 +-
 .../Processors/ImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs      |   7 +-
 .../Quantization/EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}.cs | 521 +++++++++---
 .../Quantization/IQuantizer{TPixel}.cs        |  12 +-
 .../Quantization/OctreeQuantizer{TPixel}.cs   | 766 +++++++++++++++---
 .../Quantization/PaletteQuantizer.cs          |  23 +-
 .../Quantization/PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}.cs  |  55 +-
 .../Quantization/QuantizerConstants.cs        |  19 +-
 .../Quantization/QuantizerOptions.cs          |  11 +
 .../Quantization/QuantizerUtilities.cs        |  38 +-
 .../Quantization/WuQuantizer{TPixel}.cs       |  71 +-
 .../Transforms/TransformProcessor{TPixel}.cs  |  15 +-
 .../Formats/Gif/GifEncoderTests.cs            |  11 +
 .../Formats/Png/PngEncoderTests.cs            |  46 +-
 .../Formats/WebP/WebpCommonUtilsTests.cs      |   4 +-
 .../Formats/WebP/WebpDecoderTests.cs          |  16 +
 .../ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageFrameTests.cs |   2 +-
 tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageTests.cs    |   2 +-
 .../Quantization/WuQuantizerTests.cs          |   4 +-
 tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestImages.cs          |   2 +
 .../ReferenceCodecs/MagickReferenceDecoder.cs |  36 +-
 ...de_8BitColor_WithOctreeQuantizer_rgb32.bmp |   2 +-
 ...Encode_8BitColor_WithWuQuantizer_rgb32.bmp |   2 +-
 ...onFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png |   4 +-
 ...erFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png |   4 +-
 ...rksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Atkinson.png |   4 +-
 ..._WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Burks.png |   4 +-
 ...hAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_FloydSteinberg.png |   4 +-
 ...lErrorDiffusers_Bike_JarvisJudiceNinke.png |   4 +-
 ...orksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Sierra2.png |   4 +-
 ...orksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Sierra3.png |   4 +-
 ...sWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_SierraLite.png |   4 +-
 ...thAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_StevensonArce.png |   4 +-
 ...WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Stucki.png |   4 +-
 ...orDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Atkinson.png |   4 +-
 ...ErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Burks.png |   4 +-
 ...users_CalliphoraPartial_FloydSteinberg.png |   4 +-
 ...rs_CalliphoraPartial_JarvisJudiceNinke.png |   4 +-
 ...rorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Sierra2.png |   4 +-
 ...rorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Sierra3.png |   4 +-
 ...Diffusers_CalliphoraPartial_SierraLite.png |   4 +-
 ...fusers_CalliphoraPartial_StevensonArce.png |   4 +-
 ...rrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Stucki.png |   4 +-
 ...DependOnSinglePixelType_Bgra32_filter0.png |   4 +-
 ...tDependOnSinglePixelType_Rgb24_filter0.png |   4 +-
 ...DependOnSinglePixelType_Rgba32_filter0.png |   4 +-
 ...ndOnSinglePixelType_RgbaVector_filter0.png |   4 +-
 ..._WorksWithAllDitherers_Bike_Bayer16x16.png |   4 +-
 ...er_WorksWithAllDitherers_Bike_Bayer2x2.png |   4 +-
 ...er_WorksWithAllDitherers_Bike_Bayer4x4.png |   4 +-
 ...er_WorksWithAllDitherers_Bike_Bayer8x8.png |   4 +-
 ..._WorksWithAllDitherers_Bike_Ordered3x3.png |   4 +-
 ...Ditherers_CalliphoraPartial_Bayer16x16.png |   4 +-
 ...llDitherers_CalliphoraPartial_Bayer2x2.png |   4 +-
 ...llDitherers_CalliphoraPartial_Bayer4x4.png |   4 +-
 ...llDitherers_CalliphoraPartial_Bayer8x8.png |   4 +-
 ...Ditherers_CalliphoraPartial_Ordered3x3.png |   4 +-
 ...e1962_Rgba32_issue1962_tiniest_gif_1st.png |   4 +-
 ...2012BadMinCode_Rgba32_issue2012_drona1.png |   4 +-
 ...zed_Encode_Artifacts_Rgba32_issue_2469.png |   4 +-
 ...antized_Encode_Alpha_Rgba32_Issue_2668.png |   4 +-
 ...InBox_Bike_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ionInBox_Bike_OctreeQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...Box_Bike_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ke_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ..._Bike_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ..._WebSafePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ike_WernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...x_Bike_WernerPaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...e_WernerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...tionInBox_Bike_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...onInBox_Bike_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...oraPartial_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...iphoraPartial_OctreeQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...aPartial_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...al_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...rtial_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ..._WebSafePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ial_WernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...artial_WernerPaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...l_WernerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...liphoraPartial_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...phoraPartial_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...david_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ..._david_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...david_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ...le_david_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ...le_david_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...vid_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ...avid_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...vid_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ..._david_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ..._david_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...bSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ...ebSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...bSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ..._WebSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ..._WebSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...afePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ...SafePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...afePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ...ebSafePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ...ebSafePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...ernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ...WernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...ernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ...d_WernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ...d_WernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...nerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ...rnerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...nerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ...WernerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ...WernerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...ale_david_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ...cale_david_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...ale_david_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ...gScale_david_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ...gScale_david_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...e_david_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.25.png |   4 +-
 ...le_david_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.5.png |   4 +-
 ...e_david_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.75.png |   4 +-
 ...cale_david_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither_0.png |   4 +-
 ...cale_david_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither_1.png |   4 +-
 ...ation_Bike_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...tization_Bike_OctreeQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ion_Bike_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ke_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ..._Bike_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ..._WebSafePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ike_WernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...n_Bike_WernerPaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...e_WernerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ntization_Bike_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...Quantization_Bike_WuQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ization_Bike_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...oraPartial_OctreeQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...iphoraPartial_OctreeQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...aPartial_OctreeQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...al_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...rtial_WebSafePaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ..._WebSafePaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...ial_WernerPaletteQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...artial_WernerPaletteQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...l_WernerPaletteQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 ...liphoraPartial_WuQuantizer_ErrorDither.png |   4 +-
 ...CalliphoraPartial_WuQuantizer_NoDither.png |   4 +-
 ...phoraPartial_WuQuantizer_OrderedDither.png |   4 +-
 tests/Images/Input/Gif/issues/issue_2866.gif  |   3 +
 .../Images/Input/Png/issues/issue_2469-i.png  |   3 +
 tests/Images/Input/Webp/issues/Issue2866.webp |   3 +
 177 files changed, 2120 insertions(+), 861 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.cs
 create mode 100644 src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.tt
 create mode 100644 tests/Images/Input/Gif/issues/issue_2866.gif
 create mode 100644 tests/Images/Input/Png/issues/issue_2469-i.png
 create mode 100644 tests/Images/Input/Webp/issues/Issue2866.webp

diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.cs
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..358121d0a
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.cs
@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+// <auto-generated />
+
+using System;
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp;
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a safe, fixed sized buffer of 4 elements.
+/// </summary>
+[InlineArray(4)]
+internal struct InlineArray4<T>
+{
+    private T t;
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a safe, fixed sized buffer of 16 elements.
+/// </summary>
+[InlineArray(16)]
+internal struct InlineArray16<T>
+{
+    private T t;
+}
+
+
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.tt b/src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.tt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..fae6ab227
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.tt
@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+<#@ template debug="false" hostspecific="false" language="C#" #>
+<#@ assembly name="System.Core" #>
+<#@ import namespace="System.Linq" #>
+<#@ import namespace="System.Text" #>
+<#@ import namespace="System.Collections.Generic" #>
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+// <auto-generated />
+
+using System;
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp;
+
+<#GenerateInlineArrays();#>
+
+<#+
+private static int[] Lengths = new int[] {4, 16 };
+
+void GenerateInlineArrays()
+{
+    foreach (int length in Lengths)
+    {
+#>
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a safe, fixed sized buffer of <#=length#> elements.
+/// </summary>
+[InlineArray(<#=length#>)]
+internal struct InlineArray<#=length#><T>
+{
+    private T t;
+}
+
+<#+
+    }
+}
+#>
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Bmp/BmpMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Bmp/BmpMetadata.cs
index d0c60421c..1dac74ba3 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Bmp/BmpMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Bmp/BmpMetadata.cs
@@ -158,6 +158,5 @@ public class BmpMetadata : IFormatMetadata<BmpMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
-    }
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurFrameMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurFrameMetadata.cs
index 01b7fbce0..f1ebec72f 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurFrameMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurFrameMetadata.cs
@@ -126,6 +126,7 @@ public class CurFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<CurFrameMetadata>
         float ratioY = destination.Height / (float)source.Height;
         this.EncodingWidth = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingWidth, destination.Width, ratioX);
         this.EncodingHeight = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingHeight, destination.Height, ratioY);
+        this.ColorTable = null;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurMetadata.cs
index 19de7f434..5c725e291 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurMetadata.cs
@@ -152,8 +152,7 @@ public class CurMetadata : IFormatMetadata<CurMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
-    }
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/EncodingUtilities.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/EncodingUtilities.cs
index a979fdf6f..db951b1c3 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/EncodingUtilities.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/EncodingUtilities.cs
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 using System.Buffers;
 using System.Numerics;
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
 using System.Runtime.Intrinsics;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Memory;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
@@ -24,13 +25,29 @@ internal static class EncodingUtilities
     /// to better compression in some cases.
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
-    /// <param name="clone">The cloned <see cref="ImageFrame{TPixel}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
+    /// <param name="frame">The <see cref="ImageFrame{TPixel}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
     /// <param name="color">The color to replace transparent pixels with.</param>
-    public static void ClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> clone, Color color)
+    public static void ClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> frame, Color color)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+        => ClearTransparentPixels(frame.Configuration, frame.PixelBuffer, color);
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Convert transparent pixels, to pixels represented by <paramref name="color"/>, which can yield
+    /// to better compression in some cases.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
+    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
+    /// <param name="buffer">The  <see cref="Buffer2D{TPixel}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
+    /// <param name="color">The color to replace transparent pixels with.</param>
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+    public static void ClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(
+        Configuration configuration,
+        Buffer2D<TPixel> buffer,
+        Color color)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> buffer = clone.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
-        ClearTransparentPixels(clone.Configuration, ref buffer, color);
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region = buffer.GetRegion();
+        ClearTransparentPixels(configuration, in region, color);
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -39,29 +56,27 @@ internal static class EncodingUtilities
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="clone">The cloned <see cref="Buffer2DRegion{T}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
+    /// <param name="region">The <see cref="Buffer2DRegion{T}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
     /// <param name="color">The color to replace transparent pixels with.</param>
     public static void ClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(
         Configuration configuration,
-        ref Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> clone,
+        in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region,
         Color color)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        using IMemoryOwner<Vector4> vectors = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Vector4>(clone.Width);
+        using IMemoryOwner<Vector4> vectors = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Vector4>(region.Width);
         Span<Vector4> vectorsSpan = vectors.GetSpan();
         Vector4 replacement = color.ToScaledVector4();
-        for (int y = 0; y < clone.Height; y++)
+        for (int y = 0; y < region.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<TPixel> span = clone.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+            Span<TPixel> span = region.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, span, vectorsSpan, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
             ClearTransparentPixelRow(vectorsSpan, replacement);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorsSpan, span, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
         }
     }
 
-    private static void ClearTransparentPixelRow(
-        Span<Vector4> vectorsSpan,
-        Vector4 replacement)
+    private static void ClearTransparentPixelRow(Span<Vector4> vectorsSpan, Vector4 replacement)
     {
         if (Vector128.IsHardwareAccelerated)
         {
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifDecoderCore.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifDecoderCore.cs
index e18166c4b..e9012436e 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifDecoderCore.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifDecoderCore.cs
@@ -89,6 +89,11 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// </summary>
     private GifMetadata? gifMetadata;
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The background color used to fill the frame.
+    /// </summary>
+    private Color backgroundColor;
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="GifDecoderCore"/> class.
     /// </summary>
@@ -108,9 +113,13 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
         uint frameCount = 0;
         Image<TPixel>? image = null;
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame = null;
+        FrameDisposalMode? previousDisposalMode = null;
+        bool globalColorTableUsed = false;
+
         try
         {
             this.ReadLogicalScreenDescriptorAndGlobalColorTable(stream);
+            TPixel backgroundPixel = this.backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>();
 
             // Loop though the respective gif parts and read the data.
             int nextFlag = stream.ReadByte();
@@ -123,7 +132,7 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                         break;
                     }
 
-                    this.ReadFrame(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame);
+                    globalColorTableUsed |= this.ReadFrame(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, ref previousDisposalMode, backgroundPixel);
 
                     // Reset per-frame state.
                     this.imageDescriptor = default;
@@ -158,6 +167,13 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                     break;
                 }
             }
+
+            // We cannot always trust the global GIF palette has actually been used.
+            // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2866
+            if (!globalColorTableUsed)
+            {
+                this.gifMetadata.ColorTableMode = FrameColorTableMode.Local;
+            }
         }
         finally
         {
@@ -179,6 +195,8 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
         uint frameCount = 0;
         ImageFrameMetadata? previousFrame = null;
         List<ImageFrameMetadata> framesMetadata = [];
+        bool globalColorTableUsed = false;
+
         try
         {
             this.ReadLogicalScreenDescriptorAndGlobalColorTable(stream);
@@ -194,7 +212,7 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                         break;
                     }
 
-                    this.ReadFrameMetadata(stream, framesMetadata, ref previousFrame);
+                    globalColorTableUsed |= this.ReadFrameMetadata(stream, framesMetadata, ref previousFrame);
 
                     // Reset per-frame state.
                     this.imageDescriptor = default;
@@ -229,6 +247,13 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                     break;
                 }
             }
+
+            // We cannot always trust the global GIF palette has actually been used.
+            // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2866
+            if (!globalColorTableUsed)
+            {
+                this.gifMetadata.ColorTableMode = FrameColorTableMode.Local;
+            }
         }
         finally
         {
@@ -416,7 +441,15 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// <param name="stream">The <see cref="BufferedReadStream"/> containing image data.</param>
     /// <param name="image">The image to decode the information to.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame.</param>
-    private void ReadFrame<TPixel>(BufferedReadStream stream, ref Image<TPixel>? image, ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame)
+    /// <param name="previousDisposalMode">The previous frame disposal mode.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundPixel">The background color pixel.</param>
+    /// <returns>Whether the frame has a global color table.</returns>
+    private bool ReadFrame<TPixel>(
+        BufferedReadStream stream,
+        ref Image<TPixel>? image,
+        ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame,
+        ref FrameDisposalMode? previousDisposalMode,
+        TPixel backgroundPixel)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         this.ReadImageDescriptor(stream);
@@ -438,10 +471,12 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
         }
 
         ReadOnlySpan<Rgb24> colorTable = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Rgb24>(rawColorTable);
-        this.ReadFrameColors(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, colorTable);
+        this.ReadFrameColors(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, ref previousDisposalMode, colorTable, backgroundPixel);
 
         // Skip any remaining blocks
         SkipBlock(stream);
+
+        return !hasLocalColorTable;
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -451,46 +486,36 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// <param name="stream">The <see cref="BufferedReadStream"/> containing image data.</param>
     /// <param name="image">The image to decode the information to.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame.</param>
+    /// <param name="previousDisposalMode">The previous frame disposal mode.</param>
     /// <param name="colorTable">The color table containing the available colors.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundPixel">The background color pixel.</param>
     private void ReadFrameColors<TPixel>(
         BufferedReadStream stream,
         ref Image<TPixel>? image,
         ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame,
-        ReadOnlySpan<Rgb24> colorTable)
+        ref FrameDisposalMode? previousDisposalMode,
+        ReadOnlySpan<Rgb24> colorTable,
+        TPixel backgroundPixel)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         GifImageDescriptor descriptor = this.imageDescriptor;
         int imageWidth = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.Width;
         int imageHeight = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.Height;
         bool transFlag = this.graphicsControlExtension.TransparencyFlag;
-
-        ImageFrame<TPixel>? prevFrame = null;
-        ImageFrame<TPixel>? currentFrame = null;
-        ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame;
+        FrameDisposalMode disposalMethod = this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod;
+        ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame;
 
         if (previousFrame is null)
         {
-            if (!transFlag)
-            {
-                image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, Color.Black.ToPixel<TPixel>(), this.metadata);
-            }
-            else
-            {
-                // This initializes the image to become fully transparent because the alpha channel is zero.
-                image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, this.metadata);
-            }
+            image = transFlag
+                ? new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, this.metadata)
+                : new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, backgroundPixel, this.metadata);
 
             this.SetFrameMetadata(image.Frames.RootFrame.Metadata);
-
-            imageFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
+            currentFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
         }
         else
         {
-            if (this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToPrevious)
-            {
-                prevFrame = previousFrame;
-            }
-
             // We create a clone of the frame and add it.
             // We will overpaint the difference of pixels on the current frame to create a complete image.
             // This ensures that we have enough pixel data to process without distortion. #2450
@@ -498,9 +523,19 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
             this.SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata);
 
-            imageFrame = currentFrame;
+            if (previousDisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
+            {
+                this.RestoreToBackground(currentFrame, backgroundPixel, transFlag);
+            }
+        }
+
+        Rectangle interest = Rectangle.Intersect(image.Bounds, new(descriptor.Left, descriptor.Top, descriptor.Width, descriptor.Height));
+        previousFrame = currentFrame;
+        previousDisposalMode = disposalMethod;
 
-            this.RestoreToBackground(imageFrame);
+        if (disposalMethod == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
+        {
+            this.restoreArea = interest;
         }
 
         if (colorTable.Length == 0)
@@ -568,7 +603,7 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
                 // #403 The left + width value can be larger than the image width
                 int maxX = Math.Min(descriptorRight, imageWidth);
-                Span<TPixel> row = imageFrame.PixelBuffer.DangerousGetRowSpan(writeY);
+                Span<TPixel> row = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.DangerousGetRowSpan(writeY);
 
                 // Take the descriptorLeft..maxX slice of the row, so the loop can be simplified.
                 row = row[descriptorLeft..maxX];
@@ -599,19 +634,6 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                 }
             }
         }
-
-        if (prevFrame != null)
-        {
-            previousFrame = prevFrame;
-            return;
-        }
-
-        previousFrame = currentFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;
-
-        if (this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
-        {
-            this.restoreArea = new Rectangle(descriptor.Left, descriptor.Top, descriptor.Width, descriptor.Height);
-        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -620,7 +642,8 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// <param name="stream">The <see cref="BufferedReadStream"/> containing image data.</param>
     /// <param name="frameMetadata">The collection of frame metadata.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame metadata.</param>
-    private void ReadFrameMetadata(BufferedReadStream stream, List<ImageFrameMetadata> frameMetadata, ref ImageFrameMetadata? previousFrame)
+    /// <returns>Whether the frame has a global color table.</returns>
+    private bool ReadFrameMetadata(BufferedReadStream stream, List<ImageFrameMetadata> frameMetadata, ref ImageFrameMetadata? previousFrame)
     {
         this.ReadImageDescriptor(stream);
 
@@ -632,6 +655,11 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             this.currentLocalColorTable ??= this.configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(768, AllocationOptions.Clean);
             stream.Read(this.currentLocalColorTable.GetSpan()[..length]);
         }
+        else
+        {
+            this.currentLocalColorTable = null;
+            this.currentLocalColorTableSize = 0;
+        }
 
         // Skip the frame indices. Pixels length + mincode size.
         // The gif format does not tell us the length of the compressed data beforehand.
@@ -649,6 +677,8 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
         // Skip any remaining blocks
         SkipBlock(stream);
+
+        return !this.imageDescriptor.LocalColorTableFlag;
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -656,7 +686,9 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="frame">The frame.</param>
-    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> frame)
+    /// <param name="background">The background color.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparent">Whether the background is transparent.</param>
+    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> frame, TPixel background, bool transparent)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (this.restoreArea is null)
@@ -666,7 +698,14 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
         Rectangle interest = Rectangle.Intersect(frame.Bounds, this.restoreArea.Value);
         Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion = frame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(interest);
-        pixelRegion.Clear();
+        if (transparent)
+        {
+            pixelRegion.Clear();
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            pixelRegion.Fill(background);
+        }
 
         this.restoreArea = null;
     }
@@ -775,7 +814,19 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             }
         }
 
-        this.gifMetadata.BackgroundColorIndex = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.BackgroundColorIndex;
+        // If the global color table is present, we can set the background color
+        // otherwise we default to transparent to match browser behavior.
+        ReadOnlyMemory<Color>? table = this.gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable;
+        byte index = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.BackgroundColorIndex;
+        if (table is not null && index < table.Value.Length)
+        {
+            this.backgroundColor = table.Value.Span[index];
+            this.gifMetadata.BackgroundColorIndex = index;
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            this.backgroundColor = Color.Transparent;
+        }
     }
 
     private unsafe struct ScratchBuffer
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderCore.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderCore.cs
index 797e825dc..a4830d779 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderCore.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderCore.cs
@@ -39,6 +39,11 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
     /// </summary>
     private IQuantizer? quantizer;
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The fallback quantizer to use when no quantizer is provided.
+    /// </summary>
+    private static readonly IQuantizer FallbackQuantizer = KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Whether the quantizer was supplied via options.
     /// </summary>
@@ -67,6 +72,9 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
     /// </summary>
     private readonly ushort? repeatCount;
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The transparent color mode.
+    /// </summary>
     private readonly TransparentColorMode transparentColorMode;
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -104,14 +112,18 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         GifMetadata gifMetadata = image.Metadata.CloneGifMetadata();
         this.colorTableMode ??= gifMetadata.ColorTableMode;
         bool useGlobalTable = this.colorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Global;
-
-        // Quantize the first image frame returning a palette.
-        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = null;
+        bool useGlobalTableForFirstFrame = useGlobalTable;
 
         // Work out if there is an explicit transparent index set for the frame. We use that to ensure the
         // correct value is set for the background index when quantizing.
         GifFrameMetadata frameMetadata = GetGifFrameMetadata(image.Frames.RootFrame, -1);
+        if (frameMetadata.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local)
+        {
+            useGlobalTableForFirstFrame = false;
+        }
 
+        // Quantize the first image frame returning a palette.
+        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = null;
         if (this.quantizer is null)
         {
             // Is this a gif with color information. If so use that, otherwise use octree.
@@ -121,21 +133,22 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 int transparencyIndex = GetTransparentIndex(quantized, frameMetadata);
                 if (transparencyIndex >= 0 || gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable.Value.Length < 256)
                 {
-                    this.quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable.Value, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex);
+                    this.quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable.Value, new() { Dither = null });
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    this.quantizer = KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                    this.quantizer = FallbackQuantizer;
                 }
             }
             else
             {
-                this.quantizer = KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                this.quantizer = FallbackQuantizer;
             }
         }
 
         // Quantize the first frame. Checking to see whether we can clear the transparent pixels
         // to allow for a smaller color palette and encoded result.
+        Color background = Color.Transparent;
         using (IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = this.quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration))
         {
             ImageFrame<TPixel>? clonedFrame = null;
@@ -147,24 +160,40 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 clonedFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame.Clone();
 
                 GifFrameMetadata frameMeta = clonedFrame.Metadata.GetGifMetadata();
-                Color background = frameMeta.DisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
-                    ? this.backgroundColor ?? Color.Transparent
-                    : Color.Transparent;
+                if (frameMeta.DisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
+                {
+                    background = this.backgroundColor ?? Color.Transparent;
+                }
 
                 EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(clonedFrame, background);
             }
 
             ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = clonedFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;
 
-            if (useGlobalTable)
+            if (useGlobalTableForFirstFrame)
             {
-                frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(configuration, mode, strategy, image);
-                quantized = frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, image.Bounds);
+                if (useGlobalTable)
+                {
+                    frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(configuration, mode, strategy, image, background);
+                    quantized = frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, image.Bounds);
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(configuration, mode, strategy, encodingFrame, background);
+                    quantized = frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, encodingFrame.Bounds);
+                }
             }
             else
             {
-                frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(configuration, mode, strategy, encodingFrame);
-                quantized = frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, image.Bounds);
+                quantized = this.QuantizeAdditionalFrameAndUpdateMetadata(
+                    encodingFrame,
+                    encodingFrame.Bounds,
+                    frameMetadata,
+                    true,
+                    default,
+                    false,
+                    frameMetadata.HasTransparency ? frameMetadata.TransparencyIndex : -1,
+                    background);
             }
 
             clonedFrame?.Dispose();
@@ -259,8 +288,8 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
             return;
         }
 
-        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> paletteQuantizer = default;
-        bool hasPaletteQuantizer = false;
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalPaletteQuantizer = default;
+        bool hasGlobalPaletteQuantizer = false;
 
         // Store the first frame as a reference for de-duplication comparison.
         ImageFrame<TPixel> previousFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
@@ -280,14 +309,13 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 GifFrameMetadata gifMetadata = GetGifFrameMetadata(currentFrame, globalTransparencyIndex);
                 bool useLocal = this.colorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local || (gifMetadata.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local);
 
-                if (!useLocal && !hasPaletteQuantizer && i > 0)
+                if (!useLocal && !hasGlobalPaletteQuantizer && i > 0)
                 {
                     // The palette quantizer can reuse the same global pixel map across multiple frames since the palette is unchanging.
                     // This allows a reduction of memory usage across multi-frame gifs using a global palette
                     // and also allows use to reuse the cache from previous runs.
-                    int transparencyIndex = gifMetadata.HasTransparency ? gifMetadata.TransparencyIndex : -1;
-                    paletteQuantizer = new(this.configuration, this.quantizer!.Options, globalPalette, transparencyIndex);
-                    hasPaletteQuantizer = true;
+                    globalPaletteQuantizer = new(this.configuration, this.quantizer!.Options, globalPalette);
+                    hasGlobalPaletteQuantizer = true;
                 }
 
                 this.EncodeAdditionalFrame(
@@ -298,7 +326,7 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                     encodingFrame,
                     useLocal,
                     gifMetadata,
-                    paletteQuantizer,
+                    globalPaletteQuantizer,
                     previousDisposalMode);
 
                 previousFrame = currentFrame;
@@ -307,9 +335,9 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         }
         finally
         {
-            if (hasPaletteQuantizer)
+            if (hasGlobalPaletteQuantizer)
             {
-                paletteQuantizer.Dispose();
+                globalPaletteQuantizer.Dispose();
             }
         }
     }
@@ -387,7 +415,8 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 useLocal,
                 globalPaletteQuantizer,
                 difference,
-                transparencyIndex);
+                transparencyIndex,
+                background);
 
         this.WriteGraphicalControlExtension(metadata, stream);
 
@@ -410,7 +439,8 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         bool useLocal,
         PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalPaletteQuantizer,
         bool hasDuplicates,
-        int transparencyIndex)
+        int transparencyIndex,
+        Color transparentColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> quantized;
@@ -434,14 +464,14 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                         transparencyIndex = palette.Length;
                         metadata.TransparencyIndex = ClampIndex(transparencyIndex);
 
-                        PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex);
+                        PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex, transparentColor);
                         using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
                         quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
                     }
                     else
                     {
                         // We must quantize the frame to generate a local color table.
-                        IQuantizer quantizer = this.hasQuantizer ? this.quantizer! : KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                        IQuantizer quantizer = this.hasQuantizer ? this.quantizer! : FallbackQuantizer;
                         using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
                         quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
 
@@ -454,7 +484,7 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 else
                 {
                     // Just use the local palette.
-                    PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex);
+                    PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex, transparentColor);
                     using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
                     quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
                 }
@@ -462,7 +492,7 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
             else
             {
                 // We must quantize the frame to generate a local color table.
-                IQuantizer quantizer = this.hasQuantizer ? this.quantizer! : KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                IQuantizer quantizer = this.hasQuantizer ? this.quantizer! : FallbackQuantizer;
                 using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
                 quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
 
@@ -486,7 +516,8 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         else
         {
             // Quantize the image using the global palette.
-            // Individual frames, though using the shared palette, can use a different transparent index to represent transparency.
+            // Individual frames, though using the shared palette, can use a different transparent index
+            // to represent transparency.
 
             // A difference was captured but the metadata does not have transparency.
             if (hasDuplicates && !metadata.HasTransparency)
@@ -496,7 +527,7 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 metadata.TransparencyIndex = ClampIndex(transparencyIndex);
             }
 
-            globalPaletteQuantizer.SetTransparentIndex(transparencyIndex);
+            globalPaletteQuantizer.SetTransparencyIndex(transparencyIndex, transparentColor.ToPixel<TPixel>());
             quantized = globalPaletteQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
         }
 
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifFrameMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifFrameMetadata.cs
index 5fe892c65..92bd114e8 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifFrameMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifFrameMetadata.cs
@@ -129,8 +129,7 @@ public class GifFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<GifFrameMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterFrameApply<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
-    }
+        => this.LocalColorTable = null;
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifMetadata.cs
index 517609af4..fc6c9ab9a 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifMetadata.cs
@@ -101,7 +101,7 @@ public class GifMetadata : IFormatMetadata<GifMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public PixelTypeInfo GetPixelTypeInfo()
     {
-        int bpp = this.GlobalColorTable.HasValue
+        int bpp = this.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Global && this.GlobalColorTable.HasValue
             ? Numerics.Clamp(ColorNumerics.GetBitsNeededForColorDepth(this.GlobalColorTable.Value.Length), 1, 8)
             : 8;
 
@@ -115,15 +115,16 @@ public class GifMetadata : IFormatMetadata<GifMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public FormatConnectingMetadata ToFormatConnectingMetadata()
     {
-        Color color = this.GlobalColorTable.HasValue && this.GlobalColorTable.Value.Span.Length > this.BackgroundColorIndex
+        bool global = this.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Global;
+        Color color = global && this.GlobalColorTable.HasValue && this.GlobalColorTable.Value.Span.Length > this.BackgroundColorIndex
             ? this.GlobalColorTable.Value.Span[this.BackgroundColorIndex]
             : Color.Transparent;
 
-        return new()
+        return new FormatConnectingMetadata()
         {
             AnimateRootFrame = true,
+            ColorTable = global ? this.GlobalColorTable : null,
             BackgroundColor = color,
-            ColorTable = this.GlobalColorTable,
             ColorTableMode = this.ColorTableMode,
             PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo(),
             RepeatCount = this.RepeatCount,
@@ -133,8 +134,7 @@ public class GifMetadata : IFormatMetadata<GifMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
-    }
+        => this.GlobalColorTable = null;
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatFrameMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatFrameMetadata.cs
index 20f27d050..261cc1263 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatFrameMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatFrameMetadata.cs
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ public interface IFormatFrameMetadata : IDeepCloneable
     /// Converts the metadata to a <see cref="FormatConnectingFrameMetadata"/> instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="FormatConnectingFrameMetadata"/>.</returns>
-    FormatConnectingFrameMetadata ToFormatConnectingFrameMetadata();
+    public FormatConnectingFrameMetadata ToFormatConnectingFrameMetadata();
 
     /// <summary>
     /// This method is called after a process has been applied to the image frame.
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ public interface IFormatFrameMetadata : IDeepCloneable
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="source">The source image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="destination">The destination image frame.</param>
-    void AfterFrameApply<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
+    public void AfterFrameApply<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>;
 }
 
@@ -39,6 +39,6 @@ public interface IFormatFrameMetadata<TSelf> : IFormatFrameMetadata, IDeepClonea
     /// <param name="metadata">The <see cref="FormatConnectingFrameMetadata"/>.</param>
     /// <returns>The <typeparamref name="TSelf"/>.</returns>
 #pragma warning disable CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
-    static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingFrameMetadata(FormatConnectingFrameMetadata metadata);
+    public static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingFrameMetadata(FormatConnectingFrameMetadata metadata);
 #pragma warning restore CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatMetadata.cs
index a351431c9..3142b465c 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatMetadata.cs
@@ -14,20 +14,20 @@ public interface IFormatMetadata : IDeepCloneable
     /// Converts the metadata to a <see cref="PixelTypeInfo"/> instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The pixel type info.</returns>
-    PixelTypeInfo GetPixelTypeInfo();
+    public PixelTypeInfo GetPixelTypeInfo();
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Converts the metadata to a <see cref="FormatConnectingMetadata"/> instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="FormatConnectingMetadata"/>.</returns>
-    FormatConnectingMetadata ToFormatConnectingMetadata();
+    public FormatConnectingMetadata ToFormatConnectingMetadata();
 
     /// <summary>
     /// This method is called after a process has been applied to the image.
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="destination">The destination image .</param>
-    void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
+    public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>;
 }
 
@@ -44,6 +44,6 @@ public interface IFormatMetadata<TSelf> : IFormatMetadata, IDeepCloneable<TSelf>
     /// <param name="metadata">The <see cref="FormatConnectingMetadata"/>.</param>
     /// <returns>The <typeparamref name="TSelf"/>.</returns>
 #pragma warning disable CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
-    static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingMetadata(FormatConnectingMetadata metadata);
+    public static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingMetadata(FormatConnectingMetadata metadata);
 #pragma warning restore CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IQuantizingImageEncoder.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IQuantizingImageEncoder.cs
index 5edf6e40e..1ce2aa091 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IQuantizingImageEncoder.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/IQuantizingImageEncoder.cs
@@ -13,12 +13,12 @@ public interface IQuantizingImageEncoder
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the quantizer used to generate the color palette.
     /// </summary>
-    IQuantizer? Quantizer { get; }
+    public IQuantizer? Quantizer { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the <see cref="IPixelSamplingStrategy"/> used for quantization when building color palettes.
     /// </summary>
-    IPixelSamplingStrategy PixelSamplingStrategy { get; }
+    public IPixelSamplingStrategy PixelSamplingStrategy { get; }
 }
 
 /// <summary>
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoFrameMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoFrameMetadata.cs
index 62aa705cb..77096d524 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoFrameMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoFrameMetadata.cs
@@ -119,6 +119,7 @@ public class IcoFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<IcoFrameMetadata>
         float ratioY = destination.Height / (float)source.Height;
         this.EncodingWidth = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingWidth, destination.Width, ratioX);
         this.EncodingHeight = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingHeight, destination.Height, ratioY);
+        this.ColorTable = null;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoMetadata.cs
index a6c2704b3..09c1da1b1 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoMetadata.cs
@@ -152,8 +152,7 @@ public class IcoMetadata : IFormatMetadata<IcoMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
-    }
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoder.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoder.cs
index 63e675b50..1032f8852 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoder.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoder.cs
@@ -1,8 +1,6 @@
 // Copyright (c) Six Labors.
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
-using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
-
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Png;
 
 /// <summary>
@@ -10,16 +8,6 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Png;
 /// </summary>
 public class PngEncoder : QuantizingAnimatedImageEncoder
 {
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PngEncoder"/> class.
-    /// </summary>
-    public PngEncoder()
-
-        // Hack. TODO: Investigate means to fix/optimize the Wu quantizer.
-        // The Wu quantizer does not handle the default sampling strategy well for some larger images.
-        // It's expensive and the results are not better than the extensive strategy.
-        => this.PixelSamplingStrategy = new ExtensivePixelSamplingStrategy();
-
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the number of bits per sample or per palette index (not per pixel).
     /// Not all values are allowed for all <see cref="ColorType" /> values.
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoderCore.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoderCore.cs
index ea36d9fe1..45d7d1270 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoderCore.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoderCore.cs
@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 using System.Buffers;
 using System.Buffers.Binary;
+using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
 using System.IO.Hashing;
-using System.Numerics;
 using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
 using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
 using System.Runtime.Intrinsics;
@@ -119,18 +119,13 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// </summary>
     private IQuantizer? quantizer;
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Any explicit quantized transparent index provided by the background color.
-    /// </summary>
-    private int derivedTransparencyIndex = -1;
-
     /// <summary>
     /// The default background color of the canvas when animating.
     /// This color may be used to fill the unused space on the canvas around the frames,
     /// as well as the transparent pixels of the first frame.
     /// The background color is also used when a frame disposal mode is <see cref="FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground"/>.
     /// </summary>
-    private readonly Color? backgroundColor;
+    private Color? backgroundColor;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// The number of times any animation is repeated.
@@ -158,7 +153,6 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
         this.memoryAllocator = configuration.MemoryAllocator;
         this.encoder = encoder;
         this.quantizer = encoder.Quantizer;
-        this.backgroundColor = encoder.BackgroundColor;
         this.repeatCount = encoder.RepeatCount;
         this.animateRootFrame = encoder.AnimateRootFrame;
     }
@@ -187,74 +181,92 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
 
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? clonedFrame = null;
         ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
-        int currentFrameIndex = 0;
+        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = null;
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>? paletteQuantizer = null;
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
 
-        bool clearTransparency = EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.encoder.TransparentColorMode);
-        if (clearTransparency)
+        try
         {
-            currentFrame = clonedFrame = currentFrame.Clone();
-            EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(currentFrame, Color.Transparent);
-        }
+            int currentFrameIndex = 0;
 
-        // Do not move this. We require an accurate bit depth for the header chunk.
-        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = this.CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth(
-            pngMetadata,
-            currentFrame,
-            currentFrame.Bounds,
-            null);
-
-        this.WriteHeaderChunk(stream);
-        this.WriteGammaChunk(stream);
-        this.WriteCicpChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteColorProfileChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WritePaletteChunk(stream, quantized);
-        this.WriteTransparencyChunk(stream, pngMetadata);
-        this.WritePhysicalChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteExifChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteXmpChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteTextChunks(stream, pngMetadata);
+            bool clearTransparency = EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.encoder.TransparentColorMode);
+            if (clearTransparency)
+            {
+                currentFrame = clonedFrame = currentFrame.Clone();
+                currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
+                EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(this.configuration, in currentFrameRegion, this.backgroundColor.Value);
+            }
 
-        if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
-        {
-            this.WriteAnimationControlChunk(
-                stream,
-                (uint)(image.Frames.Count - (pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame ? 0 : 1)),
-                this.repeatCount ?? pngMetadata.RepeatCount);
-        }
+            // Do not move this. We require an accurate bit depth for the header chunk.
+            quantized = this.CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth(
+                pngMetadata,
+                image,
+                currentFrame,
+                currentFrame.Bounds,
+                null);
+
+            this.WriteHeaderChunk(stream);
+            this.WriteGammaChunk(stream);
+            this.WriteCicpChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteColorProfileChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WritePaletteChunk(stream, quantized);
+            this.WriteTransparencyChunk(stream, pngMetadata);
+            this.WritePhysicalChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteExifChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteXmpChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteTextChunks(stream, pngMetadata);
 
-        // If the first frame isn't animated, write it as usual and skip it when writing animated frames
-        bool userAnimateRootFrame = this.animateRootFrame == true;
-        if ((!userAnimateRootFrame && !pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame) || image.Frames.Count == 1)
-        {
-            cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
-            FrameControl frameControl = new((uint)this.width, (uint)this.height);
-            this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(), quantized, stream, false);
-            currentFrameIndex++;
-        }
+            if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
+            {
+                this.WriteAnimationControlChunk(
+                    stream,
+                    (uint)(image.Frames.Count - (pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame ? 0 : 1)),
+                    this.repeatCount ?? pngMetadata.RepeatCount);
+            }
+
+            // If the first frame isn't animated, write it as usual and skip it when writing animated frames
+            bool userAnimateRootFrame = this.animateRootFrame == true;
+            if ((!userAnimateRootFrame && !pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame) || image.Frames.Count == 1)
+            {
+                cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
+                FrameControl frameControl = new((uint)this.width, (uint)this.height);
+                this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in currentFrameRegion, quantized, stream, false);
+                currentFrameIndex++;
+            }
 
-        try
-        {
             if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
             {
                 // Write the first animated frame.
                 currentFrame = image.Frames[currentFrameIndex];
+                currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
+
                 PngFrameMetadata frameMetadata = currentFrame.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
                 FrameDisposalMode previousDisposal = frameMetadata.DisposalMode;
                 FrameControl frameControl = this.WriteFrameControlChunk(stream, frameMetadata, currentFrame.Bounds, 0);
                 uint sequenceNumber = 1;
                 if (pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame)
                 {
-                    this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(), quantized, stream, false);
+                    this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in currentFrameRegion, quantized, stream, false);
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(), quantized, stream, true);
+                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in currentFrameRegion, quantized, stream, true);
                 }
 
                 currentFrameIndex++;
 
                 // Capture the global palette for reuse on subsequent frames.
-                ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel>? previousPalette = quantized?.Palette.ToArray();
+                ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> previousPalette = quantized?.Palette.ToArray();
+
+                if (!previousPalette.IsEmpty)
+                {
+                    // Use the previously derived global palette and a shared quantizer to
+                    // quantize the subsequent frames. This allows us to cache the color matching resolution.
+                    paletteQuantizer ??= new(
+                        this.configuration,
+                        this.quantizer!.Options,
+                        previousPalette);
+                }
 
                 // Write following frames.
                 ImageFrame<TPixel> previousFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
@@ -267,13 +279,16 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
                     cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
 
                     ImageFrame<TPixel>? prev = previousDisposal == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground ? null : previousFrame;
+
                     currentFrame = image.Frames[currentFrameIndex];
+                    currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
+
                     ImageFrame<TPixel>? nextFrame = currentFrameIndex < image.Frames.Count - 1 ? image.Frames[currentFrameIndex + 1] : null;
 
                     frameMetadata = currentFrame.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
                     bool blend = frameMetadata.BlendMode == FrameBlendMode.Over;
                     Color background = frameMetadata.DisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
-                        ? this.backgroundColor ?? Color.Transparent
+                        ? this.backgroundColor.Value
                         : Color.Transparent;
 
                     (bool difference, Rectangle bounds) =
@@ -296,8 +311,20 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
 
                     // Dispose of previous quantized frame and reassign.
                     quantized?.Dispose();
-                    quantized = this.CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth(pngMetadata, encodingFrame, bounds, previousPalette);
-                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, encodingFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(bounds), quantized, stream, true) + 1;
+
+                    quantized = this.CreateQuantizedFrame(
+                        this.encoder,
+                        this.colorType,
+                        this.bitDepth,
+                        pngMetadata,
+                        image,
+                        encodingFrame,
+                        bounds,
+                        paletteQuantizer,
+                        default);
+
+                    Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> encodingFrameRegion = encodingFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(bounds);
+                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in encodingFrameRegion, quantized, stream, true) + 1;
 
                     previousFrame = currentFrame;
                     previousDisposal = frameMetadata.DisposalMode;
@@ -313,6 +340,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
             // Dispose of allocations from final frame.
             clonedFrame?.Dispose();
             quantized?.Dispose();
+            paletteQuantizer?.Dispose();
         }
     }
 
@@ -328,18 +356,35 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="metadata">The image metadata.</param>
-    /// <param name="frame">The frame to quantize.</param>
+    /// <param name="image">The image.</param>
+    /// <param name="frame">The current image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The area of interest within the frame.</param>
-    /// <param name="previousPalette">Any previously derived palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="paletteQuantizer">The quantizer containing any previously derived palette.</param>
     /// <returns>The quantized image.</returns>
     private IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth<TPixel>(
         PngMetadata metadata,
+        Image<TPixel> image,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> frame,
         Rectangle bounds,
-        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel>? previousPalette)
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>? paletteQuantizer)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = this.CreateQuantizedFrame(this.encoder, this.colorType, this.bitDepth, metadata, frame, bounds, previousPalette);
+        PngFrameMetadata frameMetadata = frame.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
+        Color background = frameMetadata.DisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
+            ? this.backgroundColor ?? Color.Transparent
+            : Color.Transparent;
+
+        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = this.CreateQuantizedFrame(
+            this.encoder,
+            this.colorType,
+            this.bitDepth,
+            metadata,
+            image,
+            frame,
+            bounds,
+            paletteQuantizer,
+            background);
+
         this.bitDepth = CalculateBitDepth(this.colorType, this.bitDepth, quantized);
         return quantized;
     }
@@ -1105,7 +1150,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="quantized">The quantized pixel data. Can be null.</param>
     /// <param name="stream">The stream.</param>
     /// <param name="isFrame">Is writing fdAT or IDAT.</param>
-    private uint WriteDataChunks<TPixel>(FrameControl frameControl, Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> frame, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, Stream stream, bool isFrame)
+    private uint WriteDataChunks<TPixel>(in FrameControl frameControl, in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> frame, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, Stream stream, bool isFrame)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         byte[] buffer;
@@ -1123,12 +1168,12 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
                     }
                     else
                     {
-                        this.EncodeAdam7Pixels(frame, deflateStream);
+                        this.EncodeAdam7Pixels(in frame, deflateStream);
                     }
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    this.EncodePixels(frame, quantized, deflateStream);
+                    this.EncodePixels(in frame, quantized, deflateStream);
                 }
             }
 
@@ -1196,7 +1241,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="pixels">The image frame pixel buffer.</param>
     /// <param name="quantized">The quantized pixels.</param>
     /// <param name="deflateStream">The deflate stream.</param>
-    private void EncodePixels<TPixel>(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
+    private void EncodePixels<TPixel>(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         int bytesPerScanline = this.CalculateScanlineLength(pixels.Width);
@@ -1222,7 +1267,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="pixels">The image frame pixel buffer.</param>
     /// <param name="deflateStream">The deflate stream.</param>
-    private void EncodeAdam7Pixels<TPixel>(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
+    private void EncodeAdam7Pixels<TPixel>(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         for (int pass = 0; pass < 7; pass++)
@@ -1258,7 +1303,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
                 // Encode data
                 // Note: quantized parameter not used
                 // Note: row parameter not used
-                this.CollectAndFilterPixelRow<TPixel>(block, ref filter, ref attempt, null, -1);
+                this.CollectAndFilterPixelRow(block, ref filter, ref attempt, null, -1);
                 deflateStream.Write(filter);
 
                 this.SwapScanlineBuffers();
@@ -1432,6 +1477,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="pngMetadata">The PNG metadata.</param>
     /// <param name="use16Bit">if set to <c>true</c> [use16 bit].</param>
     /// <param name="bytesPerPixel">The bytes per pixel.</param>
+    [MemberNotNull(nameof(backgroundColor))]
     private void SanitizeAndSetEncoderOptions<TPixel>(
         PngEncoder encoder,
         PngMetadata pngMetadata,
@@ -1473,6 +1519,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
 
         this.interlaceMode = encoder.InterlaceMethod ?? pngMetadata.InterlaceMethod;
         this.chunkFilter = encoder.SkipMetadata ? PngChunkFilter.ExcludeAll : encoder.ChunkFilter ?? PngChunkFilter.None;
+        this.backgroundColor = encoder.BackgroundColor ?? pngMetadata.TransparentColor ?? Color.Transparent;
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -1483,17 +1530,21 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="colorType">The color type.</param>
     /// <param name="bitDepth">The bits per component.</param>
     /// <param name="metadata">The image metadata.</param>
-    /// <param name="frame">The frame to quantize.</param>
+    /// <param name="image">The image.</param>
+    /// <param name="frame">The current image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The frame area of interest.</param>
-    /// <param name="previousPalette">Any previously derived palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="paletteQuantizer">The quantizer containing any previously derived palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundColor">The background color.</param>
     private IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? CreateQuantizedFrame<TPixel>(
         QuantizingImageEncoder encoder,
         PngColorType colorType,
         byte bitDepth,
         PngMetadata metadata,
+        Image<TPixel> image,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> frame,
         Rectangle bounds,
-        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel>? previousPalette)
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>? paletteQuantizer,
+        Color backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (colorType is not PngColorType.Palette)
@@ -1501,55 +1552,52 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
             return null;
         }
 
-        if (previousPalette is not null)
+        if (paletteQuantizer.HasValue)
         {
-            // Use the previously derived palette created by quantizing the root frame to quantize the current frame.
-            using PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> paletteQuantizer = new(
-                this.configuration,
-                this.quantizer!.Options,
-                previousPalette.Value,
-                this.derivedTransparencyIndex);
-            paletteQuantizer.BuildPalette(encoder.PixelSamplingStrategy, frame);
-            return paletteQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(frame, bounds);
+            return paletteQuantizer.Value.QuantizeFrame(frame, bounds);
         }
 
         // Use the metadata to determine what quantization depth to use if no quantizer has been set.
         if (this.quantizer is null)
         {
-            if (metadata.ColorTable is not null)
+            if (metadata.ColorTable?.Length > 0)
             {
                 // We can use the color data from the decoded metadata here.
                 // We avoid dithering by default to preserve the original colors.
-                ReadOnlySpan<Color> palette = metadata.ColorTable.Value.Span;
-
-                // Certain operations perform alpha premultiplication, which can cause the color to change so we
-                // must search for the transparency index in the palette.
-                // Transparent pixels are much more likely to be found at the end of a palette.
-                int index = -1;
-                for (int i = palette.Length - 1; i >= 0; i--)
-                {
-                    Vector4 instance = palette[i].ToScaledVector4();
-                    if (instance.W == 0f)
-                    {
-                        index = i;
-                        break;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                this.derivedTransparencyIndex = index;
-
-                this.quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(metadata.ColorTable.Value, new() { Dither = null }, this.derivedTransparencyIndex);
+                this.quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(metadata.ColorTable.Value, new() { Dither = null });
             }
             else
             {
-                this.quantizer = new WuQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { MaxColors = ColorNumerics.GetColorCountForBitDepth(bitDepth) });
+                // Don't use transparency threshold for quantization PNG can handle multiple transparent colors.
+                this.quantizer = new WuQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { TransparencyThreshold = 0, MaxColors = ColorNumerics.GetColorCountForBitDepth(bitDepth) });
             }
         }
 
         // Create quantized frame returning the palette and set the bit depth.
         using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = this.quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(frame.Configuration);
 
-        frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(encoder.PixelSamplingStrategy, frame);
+        if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
+        {
+            // Encoding animated frames with a global palette requires a transparent pixel in the palette
+            // since we only encode the delta between frames. To ensure that we have a transparent pixel
+            // we create a fake frame with a containing only transparent pixels and add it to the palette.
+            using Buffer2D<TPixel> px = image.Configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate2D<TPixel>(Math.Min(256, image.Width), Math.Min(256, image.Height));
+            TPixel backGroundPixel = backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < px.Height; i++)
+            {
+                px.DangerousGetRowSpan(i).Fill(backGroundPixel);
+            }
+
+            frameQuantizer.AddPaletteColors(px.GetRegion());
+        }
+
+        frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(
+            this.configuration,
+            encoder.TransparentColorMode,
+            encoder.PixelSamplingStrategy,
+            image,
+            backgroundColor);
+
         return frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(frame, bounds);
     }
 
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngMetadata.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngMetadata.cs
index 00cba088c..bb80438ba 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngMetadata.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngMetadata.cs
@@ -250,8 +250,7 @@ public class PngMetadata : IFormatMetadata<PngMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
-    }
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/TransparentColorMode.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/TransparentColorMode.cs
index 39986b502..5b52e5fa7 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/TransparentColorMode.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/TransparentColorMode.cs
@@ -18,5 +18,5 @@ public enum TransparentColorMode
     /// to fully transparent pixels (all components set to zero),
     /// which may improve compression.
     /// </summary>
-    Clear = 1,
+    Clear = 1
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/BitReader/BitReaderBase.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/BitReader/BitReaderBase.cs
index 83f9e797a..2b843cc8f 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/BitReader/BitReaderBase.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/BitReader/BitReaderBase.cs
@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ internal abstract class BitReaderBase : IDisposable
     /// <param name="memoryAllocator">Used for allocating memory during reading data from the stream.</param>
     protected static IMemoryOwner<byte> ReadImageDataFromStream(Stream input, int bytesToRead, MemoryAllocator memoryAllocator)
     {
-        IMemoryOwner<byte> data = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(bytesToRead);
+        IMemoryOwner<byte> data = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(bytesToRead, AllocationOptions.Clean);
         Span<byte> dataSpan = data.Memory.Span;
         input.Read(dataSpan[..bytesToRead], 0, bytesToRead);
 
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/Lossy/Vp8Decoder.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/Lossy/Vp8Decoder.cs
index b3c5bfaf4..eb4a51751 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/Lossy/Vp8Decoder.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/Lossy/Vp8Decoder.cs
@@ -67,14 +67,14 @@ internal class Vp8Decoder : IDisposable
         int extraY = extraRows * this.CacheYStride;
         int extraUv = extraRows / 2 * this.CacheUvStride;
         this.YuvBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((WebpConstants.Bps * 17) + (WebpConstants.Bps * 9) + extraY);
-        this.CacheY = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((16 * this.CacheYStride) + extraY);
+        this.CacheY = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((16 * this.CacheYStride) + extraY, AllocationOptions.Clean);
         int cacheUvSize = (16 * this.CacheUvStride) + extraUv;
-        this.CacheU = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(cacheUvSize);
-        this.CacheV = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(cacheUvSize);
-        this.TmpYBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width);
-        this.TmpUBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width);
-        this.TmpVBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width);
-        this.Pixels = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)(width * height * 4));
+        this.CacheU = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(cacheUvSize, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        this.CacheV = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(cacheUvSize, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        this.TmpYBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        this.TmpUBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        this.TmpVBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        this.Pixels = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)(width * height * 4), AllocationOptions.Clean);
 
 #if DEBUG
         // Filling those buffers with 205, is only useful for debugging,
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpAnimationDecoder.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpAnimationDecoder.cs
index b74337ef3..173d9436d 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpAnimationDecoder.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpAnimationDecoder.cs
@@ -81,16 +81,29 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
     /// <param name="width">The width of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="height">The height of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="completeDataSize">The size of the image data in bytes.</param>
-    public Image<TPixel> Decode<TPixel>(BufferedReadStream stream, WebpFeatures features, uint width, uint height, uint completeDataSize)
+    public Image<TPixel> Decode<TPixel>(
+        BufferedReadStream stream,
+        WebpFeatures features,
+        uint width,
+        uint height,
+        uint completeDataSize)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         Image<TPixel>? image = null;
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame = null;
+        WebpFrameData? prevFrameData = null;
 
         this.metadata = new ImageMetadata();
         this.webpMetadata = this.metadata.GetWebpMetadata();
         this.webpMetadata.RepeatCount = features.AnimationLoopCount;
 
+        Color backgroundColor = this.backgroundColorHandling == BackgroundColorHandling.Ignore
+            ? Color.Transparent
+            : features.AnimationBackgroundColor!.Value;
+
+        this.webpMetadata.BackgroundColor = backgroundColor;
+        TPixel backgroundPixel = backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>();
+
         Span<byte> buffer = stackalloc byte[4];
         uint frameCount = 0;
         int remainingBytes = (int)completeDataSize;
@@ -101,10 +114,16 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
             switch (chunkType)
             {
                 case WebpChunkType.FrameData:
-                    Color backgroundColor = this.backgroundColorHandling == BackgroundColorHandling.Ignore
-                        ? Color.FromPixel(new Bgra32(0, 0, 0, 0))
-                        : features.AnimationBackgroundColor!.Value;
-                    uint dataSize = this.ReadFrame(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, width, height, backgroundColor);
+
+                    uint dataSize = this.ReadFrame(
+                        stream,
+                        ref image,
+                        ref previousFrame,
+                        ref prevFrameData,
+                        width,
+                        height,
+                        backgroundPixel);
+
                     remainingBytes -= (int)dataSize;
                     break;
                 case WebpChunkType.Xmp:
@@ -132,10 +151,18 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
     /// <param name="stream">The stream, where the image should be decoded from. Cannot be null.</param>
     /// <param name="image">The image to decode the information to.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame.</param>
+    /// <param name="prevFrameData">The previous frame data.</param>
     /// <param name="width">The width of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="height">The height of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="backgroundColor">The default background color of the canvas in.</param>
-    private uint ReadFrame<TPixel>(BufferedReadStream stream, ref Image<TPixel>? image, ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame, uint width, uint height, Color backgroundColor)
+    private uint ReadFrame<TPixel>(
+        BufferedReadStream stream,
+        ref Image<TPixel>? image,
+        ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame,
+        ref WebpFrameData? prevFrameData,
+        uint width,
+        uint height,
+        TPixel backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         WebpFrameData frameData = WebpFrameData.Parse(stream);
@@ -174,40 +201,51 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
                 break;
         }
 
-        ImageFrame<TPixel>? currentFrame = null;
-        ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame;
+        ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame;
         if (previousFrame is null)
         {
-            image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, (int)width, (int)height, backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>(), this.metadata);
-
-            SetFrameMetadata(image.Frames.RootFrame.Metadata, frameData);
+            image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, (int)width, (int)height, backgroundColor, this.metadata);
 
-            imageFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
+            currentFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
+            SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata, frameData);
         }
         else
         {
-            currentFrame = image!.Frames.AddFrame(previousFrame); // This clones the frame and adds it the collection.
+            // If the frame is a key frame we do not need to clone the frame or clear it.
+            bool isKeyFrame = prevFrameData?.DisposalMethod is FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
+                 && this.restoreArea == image!.Bounds;
 
-            SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata, frameData);
+            if (isKeyFrame)
+            {
+                currentFrame = image!.Frames.CreateFrame(backgroundColor);
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                // This clones the frame and adds it the collection.
+                currentFrame = image!.Frames.AddFrame(previousFrame);
+                if (prevFrameData?.DisposalMethod is FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
+                {
+                    this.RestoreToBackground(currentFrame, backgroundColor);
+                }
+            }
 
-            imageFrame = currentFrame;
+            SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata, frameData);
         }
 
-        Rectangle regionRectangle = frameData.Bounds;
+        Rectangle interest = frameData.Bounds;
+        bool blend = previousFrame != null && frameData.BlendingMethod == FrameBlendMode.Over;
+        using Buffer2D<TPixel> pixelData = this.DecodeImageFrameData<TPixel>(frameData, webpInfo);
+        DrawDecodedImageFrameOnCanvas(pixelData, currentFrame, interest, blend);
+
+        webpInfo?.Dispose();
+        previousFrame = currentFrame;
+        prevFrameData = frameData;
 
         if (frameData.DisposalMethod is FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
         {
-            this.RestoreToBackground(imageFrame, backgroundColor);
+            this.restoreArea = interest;
         }
 
-        using Buffer2D<TPixel> decodedImageFrame = this.DecodeImageFrameData<TPixel>(frameData, webpInfo);
-
-        bool blend = previousFrame != null && frameData.BlendingMethod == FrameBlendMode.Over;
-        DrawDecodedImageFrameOnCanvas(decodedImageFrame, imageFrame, regionRectangle, blend);
-
-        previousFrame = currentFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;
-        this.restoreArea = regionRectangle;
-
         return (uint)(stream.Position - streamStartPosition);
     }
 
@@ -257,31 +295,26 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
 
         try
         {
-            Buffer2D<TPixel> pixelBufferDecoded = decodedFrame.PixelBuffer;
+            Buffer2D<TPixel> decodeBuffer = decodedFrame.PixelBuffer;
             if (webpInfo.IsLossless)
             {
-                WebpLosslessDecoder losslessDecoder =
-                    new(webpInfo.Vp8LBitReader, this.memoryAllocator, this.configuration);
-                losslessDecoder.Decode(pixelBufferDecoded, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height);
+                WebpLosslessDecoder losslessDecoder = new(webpInfo.Vp8LBitReader, this.memoryAllocator, this.configuration);
+                losslessDecoder.Decode(decodeBuffer, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height);
             }
             else
             {
                 WebpLossyDecoder lossyDecoder =
                     new(webpInfo.Vp8BitReader, this.memoryAllocator, this.configuration);
-                lossyDecoder.Decode(pixelBufferDecoded, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height, webpInfo, this.alphaData);
+                lossyDecoder.Decode(decodeBuffer, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height, webpInfo, this.alphaData);
             }
 
-            return pixelBufferDecoded;
+            return decodeBuffer;
         }
         catch
         {
             decodedFrame?.Dispose();
             throw;
         }
-        finally
-        {
-            webpInfo.Dispose();
-        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -335,7 +368,7 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="imageFrame">The image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="backgroundColor">Color of the background.</param>
-    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame, Color backgroundColor)
+    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame, TPixel backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (!this.restoreArea.HasValue)
@@ -345,8 +378,9 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
 
         Rectangle interest = Rectangle.Intersect(imageFrame.Bounds, this.restoreArea.Value);
         Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion = imageFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(interest);
-        TPixel backgroundPixel = backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>();
-        pixelRegion.Fill(backgroundPixel);
+        pixelRegion.Fill(backgroundColor);
+
+        this.restoreArea = null;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpCommonUtils.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpCommonUtils.cs
index a1e9821c0..1ca409f9a 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpCommonUtils.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpCommonUtils.cs
@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ internal static class WebpCommonUtils
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="row">The row to check.</param>
     /// <returns>Returns true if alpha has non-0xff values.</returns>
-    public static unsafe bool CheckNonOpaque(Span<Bgra32> row)
+    public static unsafe bool CheckNonOpaque(ReadOnlySpan<Bgra32> row)
     {
         if (Avx2.IsSupported)
         {
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/ImageSharp.csproj b/src/ImageSharp/ImageSharp.csproj
index 0d36340bf..36c9375bd 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/ImageSharp.csproj
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/ImageSharp.csproj
@@ -44,6 +44,11 @@
     <None Include="..\..\LICENSE" Pack="true" PackagePath="" />
     <None Include="..\..\shared-infrastructure\branding\icons\imagesharp\sixlabors.imagesharp.128.png" Pack="true" PackagePath="" />
     <None Include="..\..\SixLabors.ImageSharp.props" Pack="true" PackagePath="build" />
+    <None Include="Common\InlineArray.cs">
+      <DesignTime>True</DesignTime>
+      <AutoGen>True</AutoGen>
+      <DependentUpon>InlineArray.tt</DependentUpon>
+    </None>
   </ItemGroup>
 
   <ItemGroup>
@@ -51,6 +56,11 @@
   </ItemGroup>
 
   <ItemGroup>
+    <Compile Update="Common\InlineArray.cs">
+      <DesignTime>True</DesignTime>
+      <AutoGen>True</AutoGen>
+      <DependentUpon>InlineArray.tt</DependentUpon>
+    </Compile>
     <Compile Update="Formats\_Generated\ImageMetadataExtensions.cs">
       <DesignTime>True</DesignTime>
       <AutoGen>True</AutoGen>
@@ -154,6 +164,10 @@
   </ItemGroup>
 
   <ItemGroup>
+    <None Update="Common\InlineArray.tt">
+      <Generator>TextTemplatingFileGenerator</Generator>
+      <LastGenOutput>InlineArray.cs</LastGenOutput>
+    </None>
     <None Update="Formats\_Generated\ImageMetadataExtensions.tt">
       <LastGenOutput>ImageMetadataExtensions.cs</LastGenOutput>
       <Generator>TextTemplatingFileGenerator</Generator>
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}.cs
index 6807e77ad..49c9e33eb 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}.cs
@@ -30,7 +30,7 @@ public sealed class IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> : IPixelSource, IDisposable
     /// <param name="width">The frame width.</param>
     /// <param name="height">The frame height.</param>
     /// <param name="palette">The color palette.</param>
-    internal IndexedImageFrame(Configuration configuration, int width, int height, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
+    public IndexedImageFrame(Configuration configuration, int width, int height, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
     {
         Guard.NotNull(configuration, nameof(configuration));
         Guard.MustBeLessThanOrEqualTo(palette.Length, QuantizerConstants.MaxColors, nameof(palette));
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ public sealed class IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> : IPixelSource, IDisposable
         this.Height = height;
         this.pixelBuffer = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate2D<byte>(width, height);
 
-        // Copy the palette over. We want the lifetime of this frame to be independant of any palette source.
+        // Copy the palette over. We want the lifetime of this frame to be independent of any palette source.
         this.paletteOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<TPixel>(palette.Length);
         palette.Span.CopyTo(this.paletteOwner.GetSpan());
         this.Palette = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..palette.Length];
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/CloningImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/CloningImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
index abe32e388..bc34f759a 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/CloningImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/CloningImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
@@ -132,16 +132,14 @@ public abstract class CloningImageProcessor<TPixel> : ICloningImageProcessor<TPi
     /// <param name="source">The source image. Cannot be null.</param>
     /// <param name="destination">The cloned/destination image. Cannot be null.</param>
     protected virtual void AfterFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
-    {
-    }
+        => destination.Metadata.AfterFrameApply(source, destination);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// This method is called after the process is applied to prepare the processor.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="destination">The cloned/destination image. Cannot be null.</param>
     protected virtual void AfterImageApply(Image<TPixel> destination)
-    {
-    }
+        => destination.Metadata.AfterImageApply(destination);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Disposes the object and frees resources for the Garbage Collector.
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IDither.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IDither.cs
index ac2921b98..321760127 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IDither.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IDither.cs
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ public interface IDither
     /// <param name="source">The source image.</param>
     /// <param name="destination">The destination quantized frame.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The region of interest bounds.</param>
-    void ApplyQuantizationDither<TFrameQuantizer, TPixel>(
+    public void ApplyQuantizationDither<TFrameQuantizer, TPixel>(
         ref TFrameQuantizer quantizer,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> source,
         IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> destination,
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ public interface IDither
     /// <param name="processor">The palette dithering processor.</param>
     /// <param name="source">The source image.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The region of interest bounds.</param>
-    void ApplyPaletteDither<TPaletteDitherImageProcessor, TPixel>(
+    public void ApplyPaletteDither<TPaletteDitherImageProcessor, TPixel>(
         in TPaletteDitherImageProcessor processor,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> source,
         Rectangle bounds)
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IPaletteDitherImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IPaletteDitherImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
index e406d82c6..347e2f0ef 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IPaletteDitherImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IPaletteDitherImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
@@ -15,22 +15,22 @@ public interface IPaletteDitherImageProcessor<TPixel>
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the configuration instance to use when performing operations.
     /// </summary>
-    Configuration Configuration { get; }
+    public Configuration Configuration { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the dithering palette.
     /// </summary>
-    ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither. Range 0..1.
     /// </summary>
-    float DitherScale { get; }
+    public float DitherScale { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Returns the color from the dithering palette corresponding to the given color.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
     /// <returns>The <typeparamref name="TPixel"/> match.</returns>
-    TPixel GetPaletteColor(TPixel color);
+    public TPixel GetPaletteColor(TPixel color);
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/ImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/ImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
index 2fa79220e..e1f7d1fff 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/ImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/ImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs
@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ public abstract class ImageProcessor<TPixel> : IImageProcessor<TPixel>
     protected abstract void OnFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source);
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// This method is called after the process is applied to prepare the processor.
+    /// This method is called after the process is applied to each frame.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="source">The source image. Cannot be null.</param>
     protected virtual void AfterFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source)
@@ -103,11 +103,10 @@ public abstract class ImageProcessor<TPixel> : IImageProcessor<TPixel>
     }
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// This method is called after the process is applied to prepare the processor.
+    /// This method is called after the process is applied to the complete image.
     /// </summary>
     protected virtual void AfterImageApply()
-    {
-    }
+        => this.Source.Metadata.AfterImageApply(this.Source);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Disposes the object and frees resources for the Garbage Collector.
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}.cs
index 4fd37d479..d11376e3b 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}.cs
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
 using System.Buffers;
+using System.Numerics;
 using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
 using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Memory;
@@ -21,13 +22,7 @@ internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
     where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
 {
     private Rgba32[] rgbaPalette;
-    private int transparentIndex;
-    private readonly TPixel transparentMatch;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Do not make this readonly! Struct value would be always copied on non-readonly method calls.
-    /// </summary>
-    private ColorDistanceCache cache;
+    private readonly HybridColorDistanceCache cache;
     private readonly Configuration configuration;
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -36,26 +31,12 @@ internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
     /// <param name="palette">The color palette to map from.</param>
     public EuclideanPixelMap(Configuration configuration, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
-        : this(configuration, palette, -1)
-    {
-    }
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}"/> class.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to map from.</param>
-    /// <param name="transparentIndex">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
-    public EuclideanPixelMap(Configuration configuration, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette, int transparentIndex = -1)
     {
         this.configuration = configuration;
         this.Palette = palette;
         this.rgbaPalette = new Rgba32[palette.Length];
-        this.cache = new ColorDistanceCache(configuration.MemoryAllocator);
+        this.cache = new HybridColorDistanceCache(configuration.MemoryAllocator);
         PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(configuration, this.Palette.Span, this.rgbaPalette);
-
-        this.transparentIndex = transparentIndex;
-        this.transparentMatch = TPixel.FromRgba32(default);
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -70,21 +51,27 @@ internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
     /// <param name="match">The matched color.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparencyThreshold">The transparency threshold.</param>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="int"/> index.</returns>
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-    public int GetClosestColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+    public int GetClosestColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match, short transparencyThreshold = -1)
     {
         ref TPixel paletteRef = ref MemoryMarshal.GetReference(this.Palette.Span);
         Rgba32 rgba = color.ToRgba32();
 
+        if (transparencyThreshold > -1 && rgba.A < transparencyThreshold)
+        {
+            rgba = default;
+        }
+
         // Check if the color is in the lookup table
-        if (!this.cache.TryGetValue(rgba, out short index))
+        if (this.cache.TryGetValue(rgba, out short index))
         {
-            return this.GetClosestColorSlow(rgba, ref paletteRef, out match);
+            match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (ushort)index);
+            return index;
         }
 
-        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (ushort)index);
-        return index;
+        return this.GetClosestColorSlow(rgba, ref paletteRef, out match);
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -96,46 +83,25 @@ internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
         this.Palette = palette;
         this.rgbaPalette = new Rgba32[palette.Length];
         PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(this.configuration, this.Palette.Span, this.rgbaPalette);
-        this.transparentIndex = -1;
         this.cache.Clear();
     }
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Allows setting the transparent index after construction.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="index">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
-    public void SetTransparentIndex(int index)
-    {
-        if (index != this.transparentIndex)
-        {
-            this.cache.Clear();
-        }
-
-        this.transparentIndex = index;
-    }
-
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.NoInlining)]
     private int GetClosestColorSlow(Rgba32 rgba, ref TPixel paletteRef, out TPixel match)
     {
         // Loop through the palette and find the nearest match.
         int index = 0;
-
-        if (this.transparentIndex >= 0 && rgba == default)
-        {
-            // We have explicit instructions. No need to search.
-            index = this.transparentIndex;
-            this.cache.Add(rgba, (byte)index);
-            match = this.transparentMatch;
-            return index;
-        }
-
         float leastDistance = float.MaxValue;
         for (int i = 0; i < this.rgbaPalette.Length; i++)
         {
             Rgba32 candidate = this.rgbaPalette[i];
-            float distance = DistanceSquared(rgba, candidate);
+            if (candidate.PackedValue == rgba.PackedValue)
+            {
+                index = i;
+                break;
+            }
 
-            // If it's an exact match, exit the loop
+            float distance = DistanceSquared(rgba, candidate);
             if (distance == 0)
             {
                 index = i;
@@ -144,7 +110,6 @@ internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
 
             if (distance < leastDistance)
             {
-                // Less than... assign.
                 index = i;
                 leastDistance = distance;
             }
@@ -153,6 +118,7 @@ internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
         // Now I have the index, pop it into the cache for next time
         this.cache.Add(rgba, (byte)index);
         match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (uint)index);
+
         return index;
     }
 
@@ -162,96 +128,415 @@ internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// <param name="a">The first point.</param>
     /// <param name="b">The second point.</param>
     /// <returns>The distance squared.</returns>
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
     private static float DistanceSquared(Rgba32 a, Rgba32 b)
     {
-        float deltaR = a.R - b.R;
-        float deltaG = a.G - b.G;
-        float deltaB = a.B - b.B;
-        float deltaA = a.A - b.A;
-        return (deltaR * deltaR) + (deltaG * deltaG) + (deltaB * deltaB) + (deltaA * deltaA);
+        Vector4 va = new(a.R, a.G, a.B, a.A);
+        Vector4 vb = new(b.R, b.G, b.B, b.A);
+        return Vector4.DistanceSquared(va, vb);
     }
 
     public void Dispose() => this.cache.Dispose();
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// A cache for storing color distance matching results.
+    /// A hybrid color distance cache that combines a small, fixed-capacity exact-match dictionary
+    /// (ExactCache, ~4–5 KB for up to 512 entries) with a coarse lookup table (CoarseCache) for 5,5,5,6 precision.
     /// </summary>
     /// <remarks>
-    /// <para>
-    /// The granularity of the cache has been determined based upon the current
-    /// suite of test images and provides the lowest possible memory usage while
-    /// providing enough match accuracy.
-    /// Entry count is currently limited to 2335905 entries (4MB).
-    /// </para>
+    /// ExactCache provides O(1) lookup for common cases using a simple 256-entry hash-based dictionary, while CoarseCache
+    /// quantizes RGB channels to 5 bits (yielding 32^3 buckets) and alpha to 6 bits, storing up to 4 alpha entries per bucket
+    /// (a design chosen based on probability theory to capture most real-world variations) for a total memory footprint of
+    /// roughly 576 KB. Lookups and insertions are performed in constant time, making the overall design both fast and memory-predictable.
     /// </remarks>
-    private unsafe struct ColorDistanceCache : IDisposable
+#pragma warning disable CA1001 // Types that own disposable fields should be disposable
+    // https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn-analyzers/issues/6151
+    private readonly unsafe struct HybridColorDistanceCache : IDisposable
+#pragma warning restore CA1001 // Types that own disposable fields should be disposable
     {
-        private const int IndexRBits = 5;
-        private const int IndexGBits = 5;
-        private const int IndexBBits = 5;
-        private const int IndexABits = 6;
-        private const int IndexRCount = (1 << IndexRBits) + 1;
-        private const int IndexGCount = (1 << IndexGBits) + 1;
-        private const int IndexBCount = (1 << IndexBBits) + 1;
-        private const int IndexACount = (1 << IndexABits) + 1;
-        private const int RShift = 8 - IndexRBits;
-        private const int GShift = 8 - IndexGBits;
-        private const int BShift = 8 - IndexBBits;
-        private const int AShift = 8 - IndexABits;
-        private const int Entries = IndexRCount * IndexGCount * IndexBCount * IndexACount;
-        private MemoryHandle tableHandle;
-        private readonly IMemoryOwner<short> table;
-        private readonly short* tablePointer;
-
-        public ColorDistanceCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+        private readonly CoarseCache coarseCache;
+        private readonly ExactCache exactCache;
+
+        public HybridColorDistanceCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+        {
+            this.exactCache = new ExactCache(allocator);
+            this.coarseCache = new CoarseCache(allocator);
+        }
+
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        public readonly void Add(Rgba32 color, short index)
         {
-            this.table = allocator.Allocate<short>(Entries);
-            this.table.GetSpan().Fill(-1);
-            this.tableHandle = this.table.Memory.Pin();
-            this.tablePointer = (short*)this.tableHandle.Pointer;
+            if (this.exactCache.TryAdd(color.PackedValue, index))
+            {
+                return;
+            }
+
+            this.coarseCache.Add(color, index);
+        }
+
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        public readonly bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short match)
+        {
+            if (this.exactCache.TryGetValue(color.PackedValue, out match))
+            {
+                return true; // Exact match found
+            }
+
+            if (this.coarseCache.TryGetValue(color, out match))
+            {
+                return true; // Coarse match found
+            }
+
+            match = -1;
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        public readonly void Clear()
+        {
+            this.exactCache.Clear();
+            this.coarseCache.Clear();
+        }
+
+        public void Dispose()
+        {
+            this.exactCache.Dispose();
+            this.coarseCache.Dispose();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// A fixed-capacity dictionary with exactly 512 entries mapping a <see cref="uint"/> key
+    /// to a <see cref="short"/> value.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <remarks>
+    /// The dictionary is implemented using a fixed array of 512 buckets and an entries array
+    /// of the same size. The bucket for a key is computed as (key &amp; 0x1FF), and collisions are
+    /// resolved through a linked chain stored in the <see cref="Entry.Next"/> field.
+    /// The overall memory usage is approximately 4–5 KB. Both lookup and insertion operations are,
+    /// on average, O(1) since the bucket is determined via a simple bitmask and collision chains are
+    /// typically very short; in the worst-case, the number of iterations is bounded by 256.
+    /// This guarantees highly efficient and predictable performance for small, fixed-size color palettes.
+    /// </remarks>
+    internal sealed unsafe class ExactCache : IDisposable
+    {
+        // Buckets array: each bucket holds the index (0-based) into the entries array
+        // of the first entry in the chain, or -1 if empty.
+        private readonly IMemoryOwner<short> bucketsOwner;
+        private MemoryHandle bucketsHandle;
+        private short* buckets;
+
+        // Entries array: stores up to 256 entries.
+        private readonly IMemoryOwner<Entry> entriesOwner;
+        private MemoryHandle entriesHandle;
+        private Entry* entries;
+
+        public const int Capacity = 512;
+
+        public ExactCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+        {
+            this.Count = 0;
+
+            // Allocate exactly 512 ints for buckets.
+            this.bucketsOwner = allocator.Allocate<short>(Capacity, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+            Span<short> bucketSpan = this.bucketsOwner.GetSpan();
+            bucketSpan.Fill(-1);
+            this.bucketsHandle = this.bucketsOwner.Memory.Pin();
+            this.buckets = (short*)this.bucketsHandle.Pointer;
+
+            // Allocate exactly 512 entries.
+            this.entriesOwner = allocator.Allocate<Entry>(Capacity, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+            this.entriesHandle = this.entriesOwner.Memory.Pin();
+            this.entries = (Entry*)this.entriesHandle.Pointer;
         }
 
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public readonly void Add(Rgba32 rgba, byte index)
+        public int Count { get; private set; }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Adds a key/value pair to the dictionary.
+        /// If the key already exists, the dictionary is left unchanged.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="key">The key to add.</param>
+        /// <param name="value">The value to add.</param>
+        /// <returns><see langword="true"/> if the key was added; otherwise, <see langword="false"/>.</returns>
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        public bool TryAdd(uint key, short value)
         {
-            int idx = GetPaletteIndex(rgba);
-            this.tablePointer[idx] = index;
+            if (this.Count == Capacity)
+            {
+                return false; // Dictionary is full.
+            }
+
+            // The key is a 32-bit unsigned integer representing an RGBA color, where the bytes are laid out as R|G|B|A
+            // (with R in the most significant byte and A in the least significant).
+            // To compute the bucket index:
+            // 1. (key >> 16) extracts the top 16 bits, effectively giving us the R and G channels.
+            // 2. (key >> 8) shifts the key right by 8 bits, bringing R, G, and B into the lower 24 bits (dropping A).
+            // 3. XORing these two values with the original key mixes bits from all four channels (R, G, B, and A),
+            //    which helps to counteract situations where one or more channels have a limited range.
+            // 4. Finally, we apply a bitmask of 0x1FF to keep only the lowest 9 bits, ensuring the result is between 0 and 511,
+            //    which corresponds to our fixed bucket count of 512.
+            int bucket = (int)(((key >> 16) ^ (key >> 8) ^ key) & 0x1FF);
+            int i = this.buckets[bucket];
+
+            // Traverse the collision chain.
+            Entry* entries = this.entries;
+            while (i != -1)
+            {
+                Entry e = entries[i];
+                if (e.Key == key)
+                {
+                    // Key already exists; do not overwrite.
+                    return false;
+                }
+
+                i = e.Next;
+            }
+
+            short index = (short)this.Count;
+            this.Count++;
+
+            // Insert the new entry:
+            entries[index].Key = key;
+            entries[index].Value = value;
+
+            // Link this new entry into the bucket chain.
+            entries[index].Next = this.buckets[bucket];
+            this.buckets[bucket] = index;
+            return true;
         }
 
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public readonly bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 rgba, out short match)
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Tries to retrieve the value associated with the specified key.
+        /// Returns true if the key is found; otherwise, returns false.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="key">The key to search for.</param>
+        /// <param name="value">The value associated with the key, if found.</param>
+        /// <returns><see langword="true"/> if the key is found; otherwise, <see langword="false"/>.</returns>
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        public bool TryGetValue(uint key, out short value)
         {
-            int idx = GetPaletteIndex(rgba);
-            match = this.tablePointer[idx];
-            return match > -1;
+            int bucket = (int)(((key >> 16) ^ (key >> 8) ^ key) & 0x1FF);
+            int i = this.buckets[bucket];
+
+            // If the bucket is empty, return immediately.
+            if (i == -1)
+            {
+                value = -1;
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            // Traverse the chain.
+            Entry* entries = this.entries;
+            do
+            {
+                Entry e = entries[i];
+                if (e.Key == key)
+                {
+                    value = e.Value;
+                    return true;
+                }
+
+                i = e.Next;
+            }
+            while (i != -1);
+
+            value = -1;
+            return false;
         }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Clears the cache resetting each entry to empty.
+        /// Clears the dictionary.
         /// </summary>
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public readonly void Clear() => this.table.GetSpan().Fill(-1);
+        public void Clear()
+        {
+            Span<short> bucketSpan = this.bucketsOwner.GetSpan();
+            bucketSpan.Fill(-1);
+            this.Count = 0;
+        }
 
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        private static int GetPaletteIndex(Rgba32 rgba)
+        public void Dispose()
         {
-            int rIndex = rgba.R >> RShift;
-            int gIndex = rgba.G >> GShift;
-            int bIndex = rgba.B >> BShift;
-            int aIndex = rgba.A >> AShift;
-
-            return (aIndex * (IndexRCount * IndexGCount * IndexBCount)) +
-                   (rIndex * (IndexGCount * IndexBCount)) +
-                   (gIndex * IndexBCount) + bIndex;
+            this.bucketsHandle.Dispose();
+            this.bucketsOwner.Dispose();
+            this.entriesHandle.Dispose();
+            this.entriesOwner.Dispose();
+            this.buckets = null;
+            this.entries = null;
+        }
+
+        private struct Entry
+        {
+            public uint Key;     // The key (packed RGBA)
+            public short Value;  // The value; -1 means unused.
+            public short Next;     // Index of the next entry in the chain, or -1 if none.
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// <para>
+    /// CoarseCache is a fast, low-memory lookup structure for caching palette indices associated with RGBA values,
+    /// using a quantized representation of 5,5,5,6 (RGB: 5 bits each, Alpha: 6 bits).
+    /// </para>
+    /// <para>
+    /// The cache quantizes the RGB channels to 5 bits each, resulting in 32 levels per channel and a total of 32³ = 32,768 buckets.
+    /// Each bucket is represented by an <see cref="AlphaBucket"/>, which holds a small, inline array of alpha entries.
+    /// Each alpha entry stores the alpha value quantized to 6 bits (0–63) along with a palette index (a 16-bit value).
+    /// </para>
+    /// <para>
+    /// Performance Characteristics:
+    ///   - Lookup: O(1) for computing the bucket index from the RGB channels, plus a small constant time (up to 4 iterations)
+    ///     to search through the alpha entries in the bucket.
+    ///   - Insertion: O(1) for bucket index computation and a quick linear search over a very small (fixed) number of entries.
+    /// </para>
+    /// <para>
+    /// Memory Characteristics:
+    ///   - The cache consists of 32,768 buckets.
+    ///   - Each <see cref="AlphaBucket"/> is implemented using an inline array with a capacity of 4 entries.
+    ///   - Each bucket occupies approximately 18 bytes.
+    ///   - Overall, the buckets occupy roughly 32,768 × 18 = 589,824 bytes (576 KB).
+    /// </para>
+    /// <para>
+    /// This design provides nearly constant-time lookup and insertion with minimal memory usage,
+    /// making it ideal for applications such as color distance caching in images with a limited palette (up to 256 entries).
+    /// </para>
+    /// </summary>
+    internal sealed unsafe class CoarseCache : IDisposable
+    {
+        // Use 5 bits per channel for R, G, and B: 32 levels each.
+        // Total buckets = 32^3 = 32768.
+        private const int RgbBits = 5;
+        private const int BucketCount = 1 << (RgbBits * 3); // 32768
+        private readonly IMemoryOwner<AlphaBucket> bucketsOwner;
+        private readonly AlphaBucket* buckets;
+        private MemoryHandle bucketHandle;
+
+        public CoarseCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+        {
+            this.bucketsOwner = allocator.Allocate<AlphaBucket>(BucketCount, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+            this.bucketHandle = this.bucketsOwner.Memory.Pin();
+            this.buckets = (AlphaBucket*)this.bucketHandle.Pointer;
+        }
+
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        private static int GetBucketIndex(byte r, byte g, byte b)
+        {
+            int qr = r >> (8 - RgbBits);
+            int qg = g >> (8 - RgbBits);
+            int qb = b >> (8 - RgbBits);
+
+            // Combine the quantized channels into a single index.
+            return (qr << (RgbBits * 2)) | (qg << RgbBits) | qb;
+        }
+
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        private static byte QuantizeAlpha(byte a)
+
+            // Quantize to 6 bits: shift right by (8 - 6) = 2 bits.
+            => (byte)(a >> 2);
+
+        public void Add(Rgba32 color, short paletteIndex)
+        {
+            int bucketIndex = GetBucketIndex(color.R, color.G, color.B);
+            byte quantAlpha = QuantizeAlpha(color.A);
+            this.buckets[bucketIndex].Add(quantAlpha, paletteIndex);
         }
 
         public void Dispose()
         {
-            if (this.table != null)
+            this.bucketHandle.Dispose();
+            this.bucketsOwner.Dispose();
+        }
+
+        public bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short paletteIndex)
+        {
+            int bucketIndex = GetBucketIndex(color.R, color.G, color.B);
+            byte quantAlpha = QuantizeAlpha(color.A);
+            return this.buckets[bucketIndex].TryGetValue(quantAlpha, out paletteIndex);
+        }
+
+        public void Clear()
+        {
+            Span<AlphaBucket> bucketsSpan = this.bucketsOwner.GetSpan();
+            bucketsSpan.Clear();
+        }
+
+        public struct AlphaEntry
+        {
+            // Store the alpha value quantized to 6 bits (0..63)
+            public byte QuantizedAlpha;
+            public short PaletteIndex;
+        }
+
+        public struct AlphaBucket
+        {
+            // Fixed capacity for alpha entries in this bucket.
+            // We choose a capacity of 4 for several reasons:
+            //
+            // 1. The alpha channel is quantized to 6 bits, so there are 64 possible distinct values.
+            //    In the worst-case, a given RGB bucket might encounter up to 64 different alpha values.
+            //
+            // 2. However, in practice (based on probability theory and typical image data),
+            //    the number of unique alpha values that actually occur for a given quantized RGB
+            //    bucket is usually very small. If you randomly sample 4 values out of 64,
+            //    the probability that these 4 samples are all unique is high if the distribution
+            //    of alpha values is skewed or if only a few alpha values are used.
+            //
+            // 3. Statistically, for many real-world images, most RGB buckets will have only a couple
+            //    of unique alpha values. Allocating 4 slots per bucket provides a good trade-off:
+            //    it captures the common-case scenario while keeping overall memory usage low.
+            //
+            // 4. Even if more than 4 unique alpha values occur in a bucket,
+            //    our design overwrites the first entry. This behavior gives us some "wriggle room"
+            //    while preserving the most frequently encountered or most recent values.
+            public const int Capacity = 4;
+            public byte Count;
+            private InlineArray4<AlphaEntry> entries;
+
+            [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+            public bool TryGetValue(byte quantizedAlpha, out short paletteIndex)
             {
-                this.tableHandle.Dispose();
-                this.table.Dispose();
+                for (int i = 0; i < this.Count; i++)
+                {
+                    ref AlphaEntry entry = ref this.entries[i];
+                    if (entry.QuantizedAlpha == quantizedAlpha)
+                    {
+                        paletteIndex = entry.PaletteIndex;
+                        return true;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                paletteIndex = -1;
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+            public void Add(byte quantizedAlpha, short paletteIndex)
+            {
+                // Check for an existing entry with the same quantized alpha.
+                for (int i = 0; i < this.Count; i++)
+                {
+                    ref AlphaEntry entry = ref this.entries[i];
+                    if (entry.QuantizedAlpha == quantizedAlpha)
+                    {
+                        // Update palette index if found.
+                        entry.PaletteIndex = paletteIndex;
+                        return;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // If there's room, add a new entry.
+                if (this.Count < Capacity)
+                {
+                    ref AlphaEntry newEntry = ref this.entries[this.Count];
+                    newEntry.QuantizedAlpha = quantizedAlpha;
+                    newEntry.PaletteIndex = paletteIndex;
+                    this.Count++;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    // Bucket is full. Overwrite the first entry to give us some wriggle room.
+                    this.entries[0].QuantizedAlpha = quantizedAlpha;
+                    this.entries[0].PaletteIndex = paletteIndex;
+                }
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IQuantizer{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
index 35bbb1289..dc5bdbd62 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
@@ -16,12 +16,12 @@ public interface IQuantizer<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the configuration.
     /// </summary>
-    Configuration Configuration { get; }
+    public Configuration Configuration { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the quantizer options defining quantization rules.
     /// </summary>
-    QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
+    public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the quantized color palette.
@@ -29,13 +29,13 @@ public interface IQuantizer<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// <exception cref="InvalidOperationException">
     /// The palette has not been built via <see cref="AddPaletteColors"/>.
     /// </exception>
-    ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Adds colors to the quantized palette from the given pixel source.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="pixelRegion">The <see cref="Buffer2DRegion{T}"/> of source pixels to register.</param>
-    void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion);
+    public void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Quantizes an image frame and return the resulting output pixels.
@@ -49,7 +49,7 @@ public interface IQuantizer<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// Only executes the second (quantization) step. The palette has to be built by calling <see cref="AddPaletteColors"/>.
     /// To run both steps, use <see cref="QuantizerUtilities.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame{TPixel}"/>.
     /// </remarks>
-    IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> QuantizeFrame(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, Rectangle bounds);
+    public IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> QuantizeFrame(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, Rectangle bounds);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Returns the index and color from the quantized palette corresponding to the given color.
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ public interface IQuantizer<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
     /// <param name="match">The matched color.</param>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="byte"/> index.</returns>
-    byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match);
+    public byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match);
 
     // TODO: Enable bulk operations.
     // void GetQuantizedColors(ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> colors, ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> palette, Span<byte> indices, Span<TPixel> matches);
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/OctreeQuantizer{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/OctreeQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
index 8b39b7457..be00bc433 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/OctreeQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/OctreeQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
@@ -30,6 +30,7 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     private ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette;
     private EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>? pixelMap;
     private readonly bool isDithering;
+    private readonly short transparencyThreshold;
     private bool isDisposed;
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -44,8 +45,9 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         this.Options = options;
 
         this.maxColors = this.Options.MaxColors;
+        this.transparencyThreshold = (short)(this.Options.TransparencyThreshold * 255);
         this.bitDepth = Numerics.Clamp(ColorNumerics.GetBitsNeededForColorDepth(this.maxColors), 1, 8);
-        this.octree = new Octree(this.bitDepth);
+        this.octree = new Octree(this.bitDepth, this.maxColors, this.transparencyThreshold, configuration.MemoryAllocator);
         this.paletteOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<TPixel>(this.maxColors, AllocationOptions.Clean);
         this.pixelMap = default;
         this.palette = default;
@@ -60,65 +62,54 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public readonly ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
     {
         get
         {
-            QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            if (this.palette.IsEmpty)
+            {
+                this.ResolvePalette();
+                QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            }
+
             return this.palette;
         }
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    public readonly void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
     {
-        using (IMemoryOwner<Rgba32> buffer = this.Configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Rgba32>(pixelRegion.Width))
+        using IMemoryOwner<Rgba32> buffer = this.Configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Rgba32>(pixelRegion.Width);
+        Span<Rgba32> bufferSpan = buffer.GetSpan();
+
+        // Loop through each row
+        for (int y = 0; y < pixelRegion.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<Rgba32> bufferSpan = buffer.GetSpan();
+            Span<TPixel> row = pixelRegion.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+            PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(this.Configuration, row, bufferSpan);
 
-            // Loop through each row
-            for (int y = 0; y < pixelRegion.Height; y++)
+            Octree octree = this.octree;
+            int transparencyThreshold = this.transparencyThreshold;
+            for (int x = 0; x < bufferSpan.Length; x++)
             {
-                Span<TPixel> row = pixelRegion.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
-                PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(this.Configuration, row, bufferSpan);
-
-                for (int x = 0; x < bufferSpan.Length; x++)
-                {
-                    Rgba32 rgba = bufferSpan[x];
-
-                    // Add the color to the Octree
-                    this.octree.AddColor(rgba);
-                }
+                // Add the color to the Octree
+                octree.AddColor(bufferSpan[x]);
             }
         }
+    }
 
-        int paletteIndex = 0;
+    private void ResolvePalette()
+    {
+        short paletteIndex = 0;
         Span<TPixel> paletteSpan = this.paletteOwner.GetSpan();
 
-        // On very rare occasions, (blur.png), the quantizer does not preserve a
-        // transparent entry when palletizing the captured colors.
-        // To workaround this we ensure the palette ends with the default color
-        // for higher bit depths. Lower bit depths will correctly reduce the palette.
-        // TODO: Investigate more evenly reduced palette reduction.
-        int max = this.maxColors;
-        if (this.bitDepth >= 4)
-        {
-            max--;
-        }
-
-        this.octree.Palletize(paletteSpan, max, ref paletteIndex);
+        this.octree.Palettize(paletteSpan, ref paletteIndex);
         ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> result = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..paletteSpan.Length];
 
-        // When called multiple times by QuantizerUtilities.BuildPalette
-        // this prevents memory churn caused by reallocation.
-        if (this.pixelMap is null)
+        if (this.isDithering)
         {
             this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(this.Configuration, result);
         }
-        else
-        {
-            this.pixelMap.Clear(result);
-        }
 
         this.palette = result;
     }
@@ -132,18 +123,19 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
     public readonly byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
     {
-        // Octree only maps the RGB component of a color
-        // so cannot tell the difference between a fully transparent
-        // pixel and a black one.
-        if (this.isDithering || color.Equals(default))
+        // Due to the addition of new colors by dithering that are not part of the original histogram,
+        // the octree nodes might not match the correct color.
+        // In this case, we must use the pixel map to get the closest color.
+        if (this.isDithering)
         {
-            return (byte)this.pixelMap!.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
+            return (byte)this.pixelMap!.GetClosestColor(color, out match, this.transparencyThreshold);
         }
 
         ref TPixel paletteRef = ref MemoryMarshal.GetReference(this.palette.Span);
-        byte index = (byte)this.octree.GetPaletteIndex(color);
-        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, index);
-        return index;
+
+        int index = this.octree.GetPaletteIndex(color);
+        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (nuint)index);
+        return (byte)index;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -155,16 +147,521 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             this.paletteOwner.Dispose();
             this.pixelMap?.Dispose();
             this.pixelMap = null;
+            this.octree.Dispose();
+        }
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// A hexadecatree-based color quantization structure used for fast color distance lookups and palette generation.
+    /// This tree maintains a fixed pool of nodes (capacity 4096) where each node can have up to 16 children, stores
+    /// color accumulation data, and supports dynamic node allocation and reduction. It offers near-constant-time insertions
+    /// and lookups while consuming roughly 240 KB for the node pool.
+    /// </summary>
+    internal sealed class Octree : IDisposable
+    {
+        // Pooled buffer for OctreeNodes.
+        private readonly IMemoryOwner<OctreeNode> nodesOwner;
+
+        // Reducible nodes: one per level; we use an integer index; -1 means “no node.”
+        private readonly short[] reducibleNodes;
+
+        // Maximum number of allowable colors.
+        private readonly int maxColors;
+
+        // Maximum significant bits.
+        private readonly int maxColorBits;
+
+        // The threshold for transparent colors.
+        private readonly short transparencyThreshold;
+
+        // Instead of a reference to the root, we store the index of the root node.
+        // Index 0 is reserved for the root.
+        private readonly short rootIndex;
+
+        // Running index for node allocation. Start at 1 so that index 0 is reserved for the root.
+        private short nextNode = 1;
+
+        // Previously quantized node (index; -1 if none) and its color.
+        private int previousNode;
+        private Rgba32 previousColor;
+
+        // Free list for reclaimed node indices.
+        private readonly Stack<short> freeIndices = new();
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="Octree"/> class.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="maxColorBits">The maximum number of significant bits in the image.</param>
+        /// <param name="maxColors">The maximum number of colors to allow in the palette.</param>
+        /// <param name="transparencyThreshold">The threshold for transparent colors.</param>
+        /// <param name="allocator">The memory allocator.</param>
+        public Octree(int maxColorBits, int maxColors, short transparencyThreshold, MemoryAllocator allocator)
+        {
+            this.maxColorBits = maxColorBits;
+            this.maxColors = maxColors;
+            this.transparencyThreshold = transparencyThreshold;
+            this.Leaves = 0;
+            this.previousNode = -1;
+            this.previousColor = default;
+
+            // Allocate a conservative buffer for nodes.
+            const int capacity = 4096;
+            this.nodesOwner = allocator.Allocate<OctreeNode>(capacity, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+
+            // Create the reducible nodes array (one per level 0 .. maxColorBits-1).
+            this.reducibleNodes = new short[this.maxColorBits];
+            this.reducibleNodes.AsSpan().Fill(-1);
+
+            // Reserve index 0 for the root.
+            this.rootIndex = 0;
+            ref OctreeNode root = ref this.Nodes[this.rootIndex];
+            root.Initialize(0, this.maxColorBits, this, this.rootIndex);
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Gets or sets the number of leaves in the tree.
+        /// </summary>
+        public int Leaves { get; set; }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Gets the full collection of nodes as a span.
+        /// </summary>
+        internal Span<OctreeNode> Nodes => this.nodesOwner.Memory.Span;
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Add a color to the Octree.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="color">The color to add.</param>
+        public void AddColor(Rgba32 color)
+        {
+            // Ensure that the tree is not already full.
+            if (this.nextNode >= this.Nodes.Length && this.freeIndices.Count == 0)
+            {
+                while (this.Leaves > this.maxColors)
+                {
+                    this.Reduce();
+                }
+            }
+
+            if (color.A < this.transparencyThreshold)
+            {
+                color = default;
+            }
+
+            // If the color is the same as the previous color, increment the node.
+            // Otherwise, add a new node.
+            if (this.previousColor.Equals(color))
+            {
+                if (this.previousNode == -1)
+                {
+                    this.previousColor = color;
+                    OctreeNode.AddColor(this.rootIndex, color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    OctreeNode.Increment(this.previousNode, color, this);
+                }
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                this.previousColor = color;
+                OctreeNode.AddColor(this.rootIndex, color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
+            }
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Construct the palette from the octree.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="palette">The palette to construct.</param>
+        /// <param name="paletteIndex">The current palette index.</param>
+        public void Palettize(Span<TPixel> palette, ref short paletteIndex)
+        {
+            while (this.Leaves > this.maxColors)
+            {
+                this.Reduce();
+            }
+
+            this.Nodes[this.rootIndex].ConstructPalette(this, palette, ref paletteIndex);
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Get the palette index for the passed color.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="color">The color to get the palette index for.</param>
+        /// <returns>The <see cref="int"/>.</returns>
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        public int GetPaletteIndex(TPixel color)
+            => this.Nodes[this.rootIndex].GetPaletteIndex(color.ToRgba32(), 0, this);
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Track the previous node and color.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="nodeIndex">The node index.</param>
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        public void TrackPrevious(int nodeIndex)
+            => this.previousNode = nodeIndex;
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Reduce the depth of the tree.
+        /// </summary>
+        private void Reduce()
+        {
+            // Find the deepest level containing at least one reducible node
+            int index = this.maxColorBits - 1;
+            while ((index > 0) && (this.reducibleNodes[index] == -1))
+            {
+                index--;
+            }
+
+            // Reduce the node most recently added to the list at level 'index'
+            ref OctreeNode node = ref this.Nodes[this.reducibleNodes[index]];
+            this.reducibleNodes[index] = node.NextReducibleIndex;
+
+            // Decrement the leaf count after reducing the node
+            node.Reduce(this);
+
+            // And just in case I've reduced the last color to be added, and the next color to
+            // be added is the same, invalidate the previousNode...
+            this.previousNode = -1;
+        }
+
+        // Allocate a new OctreeNode from the pooled buffer.
+        // First check the freeIndices stack.
+        internal short AllocateNode()
+        {
+            if (this.freeIndices.Count > 0)
+            {
+                return this.freeIndices.Pop();
+            }
+
+            if (this.nextNode >= this.Nodes.Length)
+            {
+                return -1;
+            }
+
+            short newIndex = this.nextNode;
+            this.nextNode++;
+            return newIndex;
+        }
+
+        /// <summary>
+        /// Free a node index, making it available for re-allocation.
+        /// </summary>
+        /// <param name="index">The index to free.</param>
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        internal void FreeNode(short index)
+        {
+            this.freeIndices.Push(index);
+            this.Leaves--;
+        }
+
+        /// <inheritdoc/>
+        public void Dispose() => this.nodesOwner.Dispose();
+
+        [StructLayout(LayoutKind.Sequential)]
+        internal unsafe struct OctreeNode
+        {
+            public bool Leaf;
+            public int PixelCount;
+            public int Red;
+            public int Green;
+            public int Blue;
+            public int Alpha;
+            public short PaletteIndex;
+            public short NextReducibleIndex;
+            private InlineArray16<short> children;
+
+            [UnscopedRef]
+            public Span<short> Children => this.children;
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Initialize the <see cref="OctreeNode"/>.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="level">The level of the node.</param>
+            /// <param name="colorBits">The number of significant color bits in the image.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
+            /// <param name="index">The index of the node.</param>
+            public void Initialize(int level, int colorBits, Octree octree, short index)
+            {
+                // Construct the new node.
+                this.Leaf = level == colorBits;
+                this.Red = 0;
+                this.Green = 0;
+                this.Blue = 0;
+                this.Alpha = 0;
+                this.PixelCount = 0;
+                this.PaletteIndex = 0;
+                this.NextReducibleIndex = -1;
+
+                // Always clear the Children array.
+                this.Children.Fill(-1);
+
+                if (this.Leaf)
+                {
+                    octree.Leaves++;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    // Add this node to the reducible nodes list for its level.
+                    this.NextReducibleIndex = octree.reducibleNodes[level];
+                    octree.reducibleNodes[level] = index;
+                }
+            }
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Add a color to the Octree.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="nodeIndex">The node index.</param>
+            /// <param name="color">The color to add.</param>
+            /// <param name="colorBits">The number of significant color bits in the image.</param>
+            /// <param name="level">The level of the node.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
+            public static void AddColor(int nodeIndex, Rgba32 color, int colorBits, int level, Octree octree)
+            {
+                ref OctreeNode node = ref octree.Nodes[nodeIndex];
+                if (node.Leaf)
+                {
+                    Increment(nodeIndex, color, octree);
+                    octree.TrackPrevious(nodeIndex);
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    int index = GetColorIndex(color, level);
+                    short childIndex;
+
+                    Span<short> children = node.Children;
+                    childIndex = children[index];
+
+                    if (childIndex == -1)
+                    {
+                        childIndex = octree.AllocateNode();
+
+                        if (childIndex == -1)
+                        {
+                            // No room in the tree, so increment the count and return.
+                            Increment(nodeIndex, color, octree);
+                            octree.TrackPrevious(nodeIndex);
+                            return;
+                        }
+
+                        ref OctreeNode child = ref octree.Nodes[childIndex];
+                        child.Initialize(level + 1, colorBits, octree, childIndex);
+                        children[index] = childIndex;
+                    }
+
+                    AddColor(childIndex, color, colorBits, level + 1, octree);
+                }
+            }
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Increment the color components of this node.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="nodeIndex">The node index.</param>
+            /// <param name="color">The color to increment by.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
+            public static void Increment(int nodeIndex, Rgba32 color, Octree octree)
+            {
+                ref OctreeNode node = ref octree.Nodes[nodeIndex];
+                node.PixelCount++;
+                node.Red += color.R;
+                node.Green += color.G;
+                node.Blue += color.B;
+                node.Alpha += color.A;
+            }
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Reduce this node by ensuring its children are all reduced (i.e. leaves) and then merging their data.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
+            public void Reduce(Octree octree)
+            {
+                // If already a leaf, do nothing.
+                if (this.Leaf)
+                {
+                    return;
+                }
+
+                // Now merge the (presumably reduced) children.
+                int pixelCount = 0;
+                int sumRed = 0, sumGreen = 0, sumBlue = 0, sumAlpha = 0;
+                Span<short> children = this.Children;
+                for (int i = 0; i < children.Length; i++)
+                {
+                    short childIndex = children[i];
+                    if (childIndex != -1)
+                    {
+                        ref OctreeNode child = ref octree.Nodes[childIndex];
+                        int pixels = child.PixelCount;
+
+                        sumRed += child.Red;
+                        sumGreen += child.Green;
+                        sumBlue += child.Blue;
+                        sumAlpha += child.Alpha;
+                        pixelCount += pixels;
+
+                        // Free the child immediately.
+                        children[i] = -1;
+                        octree.FreeNode(childIndex);
+                    }
+                }
+
+                if (pixelCount > 0)
+                {
+                    this.Red = sumRed;
+                    this.Green = sumGreen;
+                    this.Blue = sumBlue;
+                    this.Alpha = sumAlpha;
+                    this.PixelCount = pixelCount;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    this.Red = this.Green = this.Blue = this.Alpha = 0;
+                    this.PixelCount = 0;
+                }
+
+                this.Leaf = true;
+                octree.Leaves++;
+            }
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Traverse the tree to construct the palette.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
+            /// <param name="palette">The palette to construct.</param>
+            /// <param name="paletteIndex">The current palette index.</param>
+            public void ConstructPalette(Octree octree, Span<TPixel> palette, ref short paletteIndex)
+            {
+                if (this.Leaf)
+                {
+                    Vector4 sum = new(this.Red, this.Green, this.Blue, this.Alpha);
+                    Vector4 offset = new(this.PixelCount >> 1);
+                    Vector4 vector = Vector4.Clamp(
+                        (sum + offset) / this.PixelCount,
+                        Vector4.Zero,
+                        new Vector4(255));
+
+                    if (vector.W < octree.transparencyThreshold)
+                    {
+                        vector = default;
+                    }
+
+                    palette[paletteIndex] = TPixel.FromRgba32(new Rgba32((byte)vector.X, (byte)vector.Y, (byte)vector.Z, (byte)vector.W));
+
+                    this.PaletteIndex = paletteIndex++;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    Span<short> children = this.Children;
+                    for (int i = 0; i < children.Length; i++)
+                    {
+                        int childIndex = children[i];
+                        if (childIndex != -1)
+                        {
+                            octree.Nodes[childIndex].ConstructPalette(octree, palette, ref paletteIndex);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Get the palette index for the passed color.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="color">The color to get the palette index for.</param>
+            /// <param name="level">The level of the node.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
+            public int GetPaletteIndex(Rgba32 color, int level, Octree octree)
+            {
+                if (color.A < octree.transparencyThreshold)
+                {
+                    color = default;
+                }
+
+                if (this.Leaf)
+                {
+                    return this.PaletteIndex;
+                }
+
+                int colorIndex = GetColorIndex(color, level);
+                Span<short> children = this.Children;
+                int childIndex = children[colorIndex];
+                if (childIndex != -1)
+                {
+                    return octree.Nodes[childIndex].GetPaletteIndex(color, level + 1, octree);
+                }
+
+                for (int i = 0; i < children.Length; i++)
+                {
+                    childIndex = children[i];
+                    if (childIndex != -1)
+                    {
+                        int childPaletteIndex = octree.Nodes[childIndex].GetPaletteIndex(color, level + 1, octree);
+                        if (childPaletteIndex != -1)
+                        {
+                            return childPaletteIndex;
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+
+                return -1;
+            }
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Gets the color index at the given level.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="color">The color to get the index for.</param>
+            /// <param name="level">The level to get the index at.</param>
+            public static int GetColorIndex(Rgba32 color, int level)
+            {
+                // Determine how many bits to shift based on the current tree level.
+                // At level 0, shift = 7; as level increases, the shift decreases.
+                int shift = 7 - level;
+                byte mask = (byte)(1 << shift);
+
+                // Compute the luminance of the RGB components using the BT.709 standard.
+                // This gives a measure of brightness for the color.
+                int luminance = ColorNumerics.Get8BitBT709Luminance(color.R, color.G, color.B);
+
+                // Define thresholds for determining when to include the alpha bit in the index.
+                // The thresholds are scaled according to the current level.
+                // 128 is the midpoint of the 8-bit range (0–255), so shifting it right by 'level'
+                // produces a threshold that scales with the color cube subdivision.
+                int darkThreshold = 128 >> level;
+
+                // The light threshold is set symmetrically: 255 minus the scaled midpoint.
+                int lightThreshold = 255 - (128 >> level);
+
+                // If the pixel is fully opaque and its brightness falls between the dark and light thresholds,
+                // ignore the alpha channel to maximize RGB resolution.
+                // Otherwise (if the pixel is dark, light, or semi-transparent), include the alpha bit
+                // to preserve any gradient that may be present.
+                if (color.A == 255 && luminance > darkThreshold && luminance < lightThreshold)
+                {
+                    // Extract one bit each from R, G, and B channels and combine them into a 3-bit index.
+                    int rBits = ((color.R & mask) >> shift) << 2;
+                    int gBits = ((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1;
+                    int bBits = (color.B & mask) >> shift;
+                    return rBits | gBits | bBits;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    // Extract one bit from each channel including alpha (alpha becomes the most significant bit).
+                    int aBits = ((color.A & mask) >> shift) << 3;
+                    int rBits = ((color.R & mask) >> shift) << 2;
+                    int gBits = ((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1;
+                    int bBits = (color.B & mask) >> shift;
+                    return aBits | rBits | gBits | bBits;
+                }
+            }
         }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Class which does the actual quantization.
     /// </summary>
-    private sealed class Octree
+    private sealed class Octree2
     {
         /// <summary>
-        /// The root of the Octree
+        /// The root of the Octree2
         /// </summary>
         private readonly OctreeNode root;
 
@@ -173,6 +670,11 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         /// </summary>
         private readonly int maxColorBits;
 
+        /// <summary>
+        /// The threshold for transparent colors.
+        /// </summary>
+        private readonly int transparencyThreshold;
+
         /// <summary>
         /// Store the last node quantized
         /// </summary>
@@ -184,14 +686,16 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         private Rgba32 previousColor;
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="Octree"/> class.
+        /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="Octree2"/> class.
         /// </summary>
         /// <param name="maxColorBits">
         /// The maximum number of significant bits in the image
         /// </param>
-        public Octree(int maxColorBits)
+        /// <param name="transparencyThreshold">The threshold for transparent colors.</param>
+        public Octree2(int maxColorBits, int transparencyThreshold)
         {
             this.maxColorBits = maxColorBits;
+            this.transparencyThreshold = transparencyThreshold;
             this.Leaves = 0;
             this.ReducibleNodes = new OctreeNode[9];
             this.root = new OctreeNode(0, this.maxColorBits, this);
@@ -221,43 +725,46 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Add a given color value to the Octree
+        /// Add a given color value to the Octree2
         /// </summary>
         /// <param name="color">The color to add.</param>
         public void AddColor(Rgba32 color)
         {
+            if (color.A < this.transparencyThreshold)
+            {
+                color.A = 0;
+            }
+
             // Check if this request is for the same color as the last
             if (this.previousColor.Equals(color))
             {
                 // If so, check if I have a previous node setup.
-                // This will only occur if the first color in the image
-                // happens to be black, with an alpha component of zero.
                 if (this.previousNode is null)
                 {
                     this.previousColor = color;
-                    this.root.AddColor(ref color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
+                    this.root.AddColor(color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
                 }
                 else
                 {
                     // Just update the previous node
-                    this.previousNode.Increment(ref color);
+                    this.previousNode.Increment(color, this);
                 }
             }
             else
             {
                 this.previousColor = color;
-                this.root.AddColor(ref color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
+                this.root.AddColor(color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
             }
         }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Convert the nodes in the Octree to a palette with a maximum of colorCount colors
+        /// Convert the nodes in the Octree2 to a palette with a maximum of colorCount colors
         /// </summary>
         /// <param name="palette">The palette to fill.</param>
         /// <param name="colorCount">The maximum number of colors</param>
         /// <param name="paletteIndex">The palette index, used to calculate the final size of the palette.</param>
         [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public void Palletize(Span<TPixel> palette, int colorCount, ref int paletteIndex)
+        public void Palettize(Span<TPixel> palette, int colorCount, ref int paletteIndex)
         {
             while (this.Leaves > colorCount)
             {
@@ -276,10 +783,7 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         /// </returns>
         [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
         public int GetPaletteIndex(TPixel color)
-        {
-            Rgba32 rgba = color.ToRgba32();
-            return this.root.GetPaletteIndex(ref rgba, 0);
-        }
+            => this.root.GetPaletteIndex(color.ToRgba32(), 0);
 
         /// <summary>
         /// Keep track of the previous node that was quantized
@@ -307,7 +811,7 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             this.ReducibleNodes[index] = node.NextReducible;
 
             // Decrement the leaf count after reducing the node
-            this.Leaves -= node.Reduce();
+            this.Leaves -= node.Reduce(this);
 
             // And just in case I've reduced the last color to be added, and the next color to
             // be added is the same, invalidate the previousNode...
@@ -349,6 +853,11 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             /// </summary>
             private int blue;
 
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Alpha component
+            /// </summary>
+            private int alpha;
+
             /// <summary>
             /// The index of this node in the palette
             /// </summary>
@@ -360,12 +869,12 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             /// <param name="level">The level in the tree = 0 - 7.</param>
             /// <param name="colorBits">The number of significant color bits in the image.</param>
             /// <param name="octree">The tree to which this node belongs.</param>
-            public OctreeNode(int level, int colorBits, Octree octree)
+            public OctreeNode(int level, int colorBits, Octree2 octree)
             {
                 // Construct the new node
                 this.leaf = level == colorBits;
 
-                this.red = this.green = this.blue = 0;
+                this.red = this.green = this.blue = this.alpha = 0;
                 this.pixelCount = 0;
 
                 // If a leaf, increment the leaf count
@@ -380,7 +889,7 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
                     // Otherwise add this to the reducible nodes
                     this.NextReducible = octree.ReducibleNodes[level];
                     octree.ReducibleNodes[level] = this;
-                    this.children = new OctreeNode[8];
+                    this.children = new OctreeNode[16];
                 }
             }
 
@@ -400,12 +909,12 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             /// <param name="colorBits">The number of significant color bits.</param>
             /// <param name="level">The level in the tree.</param>
             /// <param name="octree">The tree to which this node belongs.</param>
-            public void AddColor(ref Rgba32 color, int colorBits, int level, Octree octree)
+            public void AddColor(Rgba32 color, int colorBits, int level, Octree2 octree)
             {
                 // Update the color information if this is a leaf
                 if (this.leaf)
                 {
-                    this.Increment(ref color);
+                    this.Increment(color, octree);
 
                     // Setup the previous node
                     octree.TrackPrevious(this);
@@ -413,7 +922,7 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
                 else
                 {
                     // Go to the next level down in the tree
-                    int index = GetColorIndex(ref color, level);
+                    int index = GetColorIndex(color, level);
 
                     OctreeNode? child = this.children![index];
                     if (child is null)
@@ -424,38 +933,63 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
                     }
 
                     // Add the color to the child node
-                    child.AddColor(ref color, colorBits, level + 1, octree);
+                    child.AddColor(color, colorBits, level + 1, octree);
                 }
             }
 
             /// <summary>
-            /// Reduce this node by removing all of its children
+            /// Reduce this node by removing all of its children.
             /// </summary>
             /// <returns>The number of leaves removed</returns>
-            public int Reduce()
+            /// <param name="octree">The tree to which this node belongs.</param>
+            public int Reduce(Octree2 octree)
             {
-                this.red = this.green = this.blue = 0;
+                if (this.leaf)
+                {
+                    return 1;
+                }
+
                 int childNodes = 0;
+                int sumRed = 0, sumGreen = 0, sumBlue = 0, sumAlpha = 0, pixelCount = 0;
 
-                // Loop through all children and add their information to this node
-                for (int index = 0; index < 8; index++)
+                // Loop through all children.
+                for (int index = 0; index < this.children!.Length; index++)
                 {
-                    OctreeNode? child = this.children![index];
+                    OctreeNode? child = this.children[index];
                     if (child != null)
                     {
-                        this.red += child.red;
-                        this.green += child.green;
-                        this.blue += child.blue;
-                        this.pixelCount += child.pixelCount;
-                        ++childNodes;
+                        childNodes++;
+
+                        sumRed += child.red;
+                        sumGreen += child.green;
+                        sumBlue += child.blue;
+                        sumAlpha += child.alpha;
+                        pixelCount += child.pixelCount;
+
+                        // Remove the child reference.
                         this.children[index] = null;
                     }
                 }
 
-                // Now change this to a leaf node
+                if (pixelCount > 0)
+                {
+                    int offset = pixelCount >> 1;
+                    this.red = sumRed;
+                    this.green = sumGreen;
+                    this.blue = sumBlue;
+                    this.alpha = ((sumAlpha + offset) / pixelCount < octree.transparencyThreshold) ? 0 : sumAlpha;
+                    this.pixelCount = pixelCount;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    this.red = this.green = this.blue = this.alpha = 0;
+                    this.pixelCount = 0;
+                }
+
+                // Convert this node into a leaf.
                 this.leaf = true;
 
-                // Return the number of nodes to decrement the leaf count by
+                // Return the number of nodes merged (for decrementing the leaf count).
                 return childNodes - 1;
             }
 
@@ -470,12 +1004,15 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
                 if (this.leaf)
                 {
                     // Set the color of the palette entry
-                    Vector3 vector = Vector3.Clamp(
-                        new Vector3(this.red, this.green, this.blue) / this.pixelCount,
-                        Vector3.Zero,
-                        new Vector3(255));
+                    Vector4 sum = new(this.red, this.green, this.blue, this.alpha);
+                    Vector4 offset = new(this.pixelCount >> 1);
+
+                    Vector4 vector = Vector4.Clamp(
+                        (sum + offset) / this.pixelCount,
+                        Vector4.Zero,
+                        new Vector4(255));
 
-                    palette[index] = TPixel.FromRgba32(new Rgba32((byte)vector.X, (byte)vector.Y, (byte)vector.Z));
+                    palette[index] = TPixel.FromRgba32(new Rgba32((byte)vector.X, (byte)vector.Y, (byte)vector.Z, (byte)vector.W));
 
                     // Consume the next palette index
                     this.paletteIndex = index++;
@@ -483,9 +1020,9 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
                 else
                 {
                     // Loop through children looking for leaves
-                    for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++)
+                    for (int i = 0; i < this.children!.Length; i++)
                     {
-                        this.children![i]?.ConstructPalette(palette, ref index);
+                        this.children[i]?.ConstructPalette(palette, ref index);
                     }
                 }
             }
@@ -499,20 +1036,20 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             /// The <see cref="int"/> representing the index of the pixel in the palette.
             /// </returns>
             [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ColdPath)]
-            public int GetPaletteIndex(ref Rgba32 pixel, int level)
+            public int GetPaletteIndex(Rgba32 pixel, int level)
             {
                 if (this.leaf)
                 {
                     return this.paletteIndex;
                 }
 
-                int colorIndex = GetColorIndex(ref pixel, level);
+                int colorIndex = GetColorIndex(pixel, level);
                 OctreeNode? child = this.children![colorIndex];
 
-                int index = 0;
+                int index = -1;
                 if (child != null)
                 {
-                    index = child.GetPaletteIndex(ref pixel, level + 1);
+                    index = child.GetPaletteIndex(pixel, level + 1);
                 }
                 else
                 {
@@ -522,8 +1059,8 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
                         child = this.children[i];
                         if (child != null)
                         {
-                            int childIndex = child.GetPaletteIndex(ref pixel, level + 1);
-                            if (childIndex != 0)
+                            int childIndex = child.GetPaletteIndex(pixel, level + 1);
+                            if (childIndex != -1)
                             {
                                 return childIndex;
                             }
@@ -541,27 +1078,54 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             /// <param name="level">The node level.</param>
             /// <returns>The <see cref="int"/> index.</returns>
             [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-            private static int GetColorIndex(ref Rgba32 color, int level)
+            private static int GetColorIndex(Rgba32 color, int level)
             {
                 int shift = 7 - level;
                 byte mask = (byte)(1 << shift);
 
-                return ((color.R & mask) >> shift)
-                    | (((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1)
-                    | (((color.B & mask) >> shift) << 2);
+                // Compute luminance of the RGB channels.
+                int luminance = ColorNumerics.Get8BitBT709Luminance(color.R, color.G, color.B);
+
+                // Shift the threshold (arbitrary) right by the current level.
+                // This allows us to partition the RGB space into smaller and smaller cubes
+                // with increasing accuracy for the alpha component.
+                int darkThreshold = 24 >> level;
+
+                // For fully opaque and bright pixels, ignore the alpha bit to achieve finer RGB partitioning.
+                // For dark pixels, include the alpha bit so that dark drop shadows remain distinct.
+                if (color.A == 255 && luminance > darkThreshold)
+                {
+                    int rBits = ((color.R & mask) >> shift) << 2;
+                    int gBits = ((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1;
+                    int bBits = (color.B & mask) >> shift;
+                    return rBits | gBits | bBits;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    int aBits = ((color.A & mask) >> shift) << 3;
+                    int rBits = ((color.R & mask) >> shift) << 2;
+                    int gBits = ((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1;
+                    int bBits = (color.B & mask) >> shift;
+                    return aBits | rBits | gBits | bBits;
+                }
             }
 
             /// <summary>
             /// Increment the color count and add to the color information
             /// </summary>
             /// <param name="color">The pixel to add.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
             [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-            public void Increment(ref Rgba32 color)
+            public void Increment(Rgba32 color, Octree2 octree)
             {
                 this.pixelCount++;
                 this.red += color.R;
                 this.green += color.G;
                 this.blue += color.B;
+
+                int sumAlpha = this.alpha + color.A;
+                int offset = this.pixelCount >> 1;
+                this.alpha = ((sumAlpha + offset) / this.pixelCount < octree.transparencyThreshold) ? 0 : sumAlpha;
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer.cs
index 13a59a26d..a49691515 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer.cs
@@ -11,7 +11,8 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 public class PaletteQuantizer : IQuantizer
 {
     private readonly ReadOnlyMemory<Color> colorPalette;
-    private readonly int transparentIndex;
+    private readonly int transparencyIndex;
+    private readonly Color transparentColor;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer"/> class.
@@ -25,27 +26,33 @@ public class PaletteQuantizer : IQuantizer
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer"/> class.
     /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to use.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
     public PaletteQuantizer(ReadOnlyMemory<Color> palette, QuantizerOptions options)
-        : this(palette, options, -1)
+        : this(palette, options, -1, default)
     {
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer"/> class.
     /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to use.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
-    /// <param name="transparentIndex">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
-    internal PaletteQuantizer(ReadOnlyMemory<Color> palette, QuantizerOptions options, int transparentIndex)
+    /// <param name="transparencyIndex">The index of the color in the palette that should be considered as transparent.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparentColor">The color that should be considered as transparent.</param>
+    internal PaletteQuantizer(
+        ReadOnlyMemory<Color> palette,
+        QuantizerOptions options,
+        int transparencyIndex,
+        Color transparentColor)
     {
         Guard.MustBeGreaterThan(palette.Length, 0, nameof(palette));
         Guard.NotNull(options, nameof(options));
 
         this.colorPalette = palette;
         this.Options = options;
-        this.transparentIndex = transparentIndex;
+        this.transparencyIndex = transparencyIndex;
+        this.transparentColor = transparentColor;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc />
@@ -66,6 +73,6 @@ public class PaletteQuantizer : IQuantizer
         // treat the buffer as FILO.
         TPixel[] palette = new TPixel[Math.Min(options.MaxColors, this.colorPalette.Length)];
         Color.ToPixel(this.colorPalette.Span[..palette.Length], palette.AsSpan());
-        return new PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>(configuration, options, palette, this.transparentIndex);
+        return new PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>(configuration, options, palette, this.transparencyIndex, this.transparentColor.ToPixel<TPixel>());
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
index 092975d28..d734b36c3 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
@@ -17,10 +17,12 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
     "Design",
     "CA1001:Types that own disposable fields should be disposable",
     Justification = "https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn-analyzers/issues/6151")]
-internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
+internal struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
 {
     private readonly EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> pixelMap;
+    private int transparencyIndex;
+    private TPixel transparentColor;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}"/> struct.
@@ -28,20 +30,37 @@ internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
     /// <param name="palette">The palette to use.</param>
-    /// <param name="transparentIndex">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public PaletteQuantizer(Configuration configuration, QuantizerOptions options, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
+        : this(configuration, options, palette, -1, default)
+    {
+        Guard.NotNull(configuration, nameof(configuration));
+        Guard.NotNull(options, nameof(options));
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}"/> struct.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.</param>
+    /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">The palette to use.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparencyIndex">The index of the color in the palette that should be considered as transparent.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparentColor">The color that should be considered as transparent.</param>
     public PaletteQuantizer(
         Configuration configuration,
         QuantizerOptions options,
         ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette,
-        int transparentIndex)
+        int transparencyIndex,
+        TPixel transparentColor)
     {
         Guard.NotNull(configuration, nameof(configuration));
         Guard.NotNull(options, nameof(options));
 
         this.Configuration = configuration;
         this.Options = options;
-        this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(configuration, palette, transparentIndex);
+        this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(configuration, palette);
+        this.transparencyIndex = transparencyIndex;
+        this.transparentColor = transparentColor;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -51,7 +70,7 @@ internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette => this.pixelMap.Palette;
+    public readonly ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette => this.pixelMap.Palette;
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
@@ -60,21 +79,29 @@ internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-    public void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    public readonly void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
     {
     }
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Allows setting the transparent index after construction.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="index">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
-    public void SetTransparentIndex(int index) => this.pixelMap.SetTransparentIndex(index);
-
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
     public readonly byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
-        => (byte)this.pixelMap.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
+    {
+        if (this.transparencyIndex >= 0 && color.Equals(this.transparentColor))
+        {
+            match = this.transparentColor;
+            return (byte)this.transparencyIndex;
+        }
+
+        return (byte)this.pixelMap.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
+    }
+
+    public void SetTransparencyIndex(int transparencyIndex, TPixel transparentColor)
+    {
+        this.transparencyIndex = transparencyIndex;
+        this.transparentColor = transparentColor;
+    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public void Dispose() => this.pixelMap.Dispose();
+    public readonly void Dispose() => this.pixelMap.Dispose();
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerConstants.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerConstants.cs
index 2bf4c6d56..3b515e372 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerConstants.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerConstants.cs
@@ -21,15 +21,30 @@ public static class QuantizerConstants
     public const int MaxColors = 256;
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// The minumim dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
+    /// The minimum dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
     /// </summary>
     public const float MinDitherScale = 0;
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// The max dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
+    /// The maximum dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
     /// </summary>
     public const float MaxDitherScale = 1F;
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The default threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent.
+    /// </summary>
+    public const float DefaultTransparencyThreshold = 64 / 255F;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The minimum threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent.
+    /// </summary>
+    public const float MinTransparencyThreshold = 0F;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The maximum threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent.
+    /// </summary>
+    public const float MaxTransparencyThreshold = 1F;
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the default dithering algorithm to use.
     /// </summary>
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerOptions.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerOptions.cs
index a6bb265a8..4f4104a8a 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerOptions.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerOptions.cs
@@ -12,6 +12,7 @@ public class QuantizerOptions
 {
     private float ditherScale = QuantizerConstants.MaxDitherScale;
     private int maxColors = QuantizerConstants.MaxColors;
+    private float threshold = QuantizerConstants.DefaultTransparencyThreshold;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets or sets the  algorithm to apply to the output image.
@@ -38,4 +39,14 @@ public class QuantizerOptions
         get => this.maxColors;
         set => this.maxColors = Numerics.Clamp(value, QuantizerConstants.MinColors, QuantizerConstants.MaxColors);
     }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Gets or sets the threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent. Range 0..1.
+    /// Defaults to <see cref="QuantizerConstants.DefaultTransparencyThreshold"/>.
+    /// </summary>
+    public float TransparencyThreshold
+    {
+        get => this.threshold;
+        set => this.threshold = Numerics.Clamp(value, QuantizerConstants.MinTransparencyThreshold, QuantizerConstants.MaxTransparencyThreshold);
+    }
 }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerUtilities.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerUtilities.cs
index 6d2200b8a..7669f0d3c 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerUtilities.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerUtilities.cs
@@ -112,7 +112,12 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
         IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
         Image<TPixel> source)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-        => quantizer.BuildPalette(source.Configuration, TransparentColorMode.Preserve, pixelSamplingStrategy, source);
+        => quantizer.BuildPalette(
+            source.Configuration,
+            TransparentColorMode.Preserve,
+            pixelSamplingStrategy,
+            source,
+            Color.Transparent);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Adds colors to the quantized palette from the given pixel regions.
@@ -123,27 +128,33 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
     /// <param name="mode">The transparent color mode.</param>
     /// <param name="pixelSamplingStrategy">The pixel sampling strategy.</param>
     /// <param name="source">The source image to sample from.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundColor">The background color to use when clearing transparent pixels.</param>
     public static void BuildPalette<TPixel>(
         this IQuantizer<TPixel> quantizer,
         Configuration configuration,
         TransparentColorMode mode,
         IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
-        Image<TPixel> source)
+        Image<TPixel> source,
+        Color backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(mode))
         {
             foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
             {
+                // We need to clone the region to ensure we don't alter the original image.
                 using Buffer2D<TPixel> clone = region.Buffer.CloneRegion(configuration, region.Rectangle);
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(clone.GetRegion());
+                Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> clonedRegion = clone.GetRegion();
+
+                EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(configuration, in clonedRegion, backgroundColor);
+                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(in clonedRegion);
             }
         }
         else
         {
             foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
             {
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(region);
+                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(in region);
             }
         }
     }
@@ -160,7 +171,12 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
         IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> source)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-        => quantizer.BuildPalette(source.Configuration, TransparentColorMode.Preserve, pixelSamplingStrategy, source);
+        => quantizer.BuildPalette(
+            source.Configuration,
+            TransparentColorMode.Preserve,
+            pixelSamplingStrategy,
+            source,
+            Color.Transparent);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Adds colors to the quantized palette from the given pixel regions.
@@ -171,27 +187,33 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
     /// <param name="mode">The transparent color mode.</param>
     /// <param name="pixelSamplingStrategy">The pixel sampling strategy.</param>
     /// <param name="source">The source image frame to sample from.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundColor">The background color to use when clearing transparent pixels.</param>
     public static void BuildPalette<TPixel>(
         this IQuantizer<TPixel> quantizer,
         Configuration configuration,
         TransparentColorMode mode,
         IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
-        ImageFrame<TPixel> source)
+        ImageFrame<TPixel> source,
+        Color backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(mode))
         {
+            // We need to clone the region to ensure we don't alter the original image.
             foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
             {
                 using Buffer2D<TPixel> clone = region.Buffer.CloneRegion(configuration, region.Rectangle);
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(clone.GetRegion());
+                Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> clonedRegion = clone.GetRegion();
+
+                EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(configuration, in clonedRegion, backgroundColor);
+                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(in clonedRegion);
             }
         }
         else
         {
             foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
             {
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(region);
+                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(in region);
             }
         }
     }
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/WuQuantizer{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/WuQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
index ba2ab825a..e637c2cf0 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/WuQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/WuQuantizer{TPixel}.cs
@@ -74,6 +74,7 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     private readonly IMemoryOwner<TPixel> paletteOwner;
     private ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette;
     private int maxColors;
+    private short transparencyThreshold;
     private readonly Box[] colorCube;
     private EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>? pixelMap;
     private readonly bool isDithering;
@@ -102,6 +103,7 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         this.pixelMap = default;
         this.palette = default;
         this.isDithering = this.isDithering = this.Options.Dither is not null;
+        this.transparencyThreshold = (short)(this.Options.TransparencyThreshold * 255);
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -111,57 +113,57 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public readonly ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
     {
         get
         {
-            QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            if (this.palette.IsEmpty)
+            {
+                this.ResolvePalette();
+                QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            }
+
             return this.palette;
         }
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    public readonly void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+        => this.Build3DHistogram(pixelRegion);
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Once all histogram data has been accumulated, this method computes the moments,
+    /// splits the color cube, and resolves the final palette from the accumulated histogram.
+    /// </summary>
+    private void ResolvePalette()
     {
-        // TODO: Something is destroying the existing palette when adding new colors.
-        // When the QuantizingImageEncoder.PixelSamplingStrategy is DefaultPixelSamplingStrategy
-        // this leads to performance issues + the palette is not preserved.
-        // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2498
-        this.Build3DHistogram(pixelRegion);
+        // Calculate the cumulative moments from the accumulated histogram.
         this.Get3DMoments(this.memoryAllocator);
+
+        // Partition the histogram into color cubes.
         this.BuildCube();
 
-        // Slice again since maxColors has been updated since the buffer was created.
+        // Compute the palette colors from the resolved cubes.
         Span<TPixel> paletteSpan = this.paletteOwner.GetSpan()[..this.maxColors];
         ReadOnlySpan<Moment> momentsSpan = this.momentsOwner.GetSpan();
         for (int k = 0; k < paletteSpan.Length; k++)
         {
             this.Mark(ref this.colorCube[k], (byte)k);
-
             Moment moment = Volume(ref this.colorCube[k], momentsSpan);
-
             if (moment.Weight > 0)
             {
                 paletteSpan[k] = TPixel.FromScaledVector4(moment.Normalize());
             }
         }
 
-        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> result = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..paletteSpan.Length];
-        if (this.isDithering)
+        // Update the palette to the new computed colors.
+        this.palette = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..paletteSpan.Length];
+
+        // Create the pixel map if dithering is enabled.
+        if (this.isDithering && this.pixelMap is null)
         {
-            // When called multiple times by QuantizerUtilities.BuildPalette
-            // this prevents memory churn caused by reallocation.
-            if (this.pixelMap is null)
-            {
-                this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(this.Configuration, result);
-            }
-            else
-            {
-                this.pixelMap.Clear(result);
-            }
+            this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(this.Configuration, this.palette);
         }
-
-        this.palette = result;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -172,12 +174,19 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public readonly byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
     {
+        // Due to the addition of new colors by dithering that are not part of the original histogram,
+        // the color cube might not match the correct color.
+        // In this case, we must use the pixel map to get the closest color.
         if (this.isDithering)
         {
-            return (byte)this.pixelMap!.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
+            return (byte)this.pixelMap!.GetClosestColor(color, out match, this.transparencyThreshold);
         }
 
         Rgba32 rgba = color.ToRgba32();
+        if (rgba.A < this.transparencyThreshold)
+        {
+            rgba = default;
+        }
 
         const int shift = 8 - IndexBits;
         int r = rgba.R >> shift;
@@ -188,7 +197,7 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         ReadOnlySpan<byte> tagSpan = this.tagsOwner.GetSpan();
         byte index = tagSpan[GetPaletteIndex(r + 1, g + 1, b + 1, a + 1)];
         ref TPixel paletteRef = ref MemoryMarshal.GetReference(this.palette.Span);
-        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, index);
+        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (nuint)index);
         return index;
     }
 
@@ -360,7 +369,7 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     /// Builds a 3-D color histogram of <c>counts, r/g/b, c^2</c>.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="source">The source pixel data.</param>
-    private readonly void Build3DHistogram(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> source)
+    private readonly void Build3DHistogram(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> source)
     {
         Span<Moment> momentSpan = this.momentsOwner.GetSpan();
 
@@ -368,6 +377,8 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         using IMemoryOwner<Rgba32> buffer = this.memoryAllocator.Allocate<Rgba32>(source.Width);
         Span<Rgba32> bufferSpan = buffer.GetSpan();
 
+        float transparencyThreshold = this.Options.TransparencyThreshold * 255;
+
         for (int y = 0; y < source.Height; y++)
         {
             Span<TPixel> row = source.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
@@ -376,6 +387,10 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             for (int x = 0; x < bufferSpan.Length; x++)
             {
                 Rgba32 rgba = bufferSpan[x];
+                if (rgba.A < transparencyThreshold)
+                {
+                    rgba = default;
+                }
 
                 int r = (rgba.R >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
                 int g = (rgba.G >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
diff --git a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Transforms/TransformProcessor{TPixel}.cs b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Transforms/TransformProcessor{TPixel}.cs
index bdfac0036..a8455a06e 100644
--- a/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Transforms/TransformProcessor{TPixel}.cs
+++ b/src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Transforms/TransformProcessor{TPixel}.cs
@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
 
+// TODO: DO we need this class?
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Transforms;
 
 /// <summary>
@@ -22,18 +23,4 @@ internal abstract class TransformProcessor<TPixel> : CloningImageProcessor<TPixe
         : base(configuration, source, sourceRectangle)
     {
     }
-
-    /// <inheritdoc/>
-    protected override void AfterFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
-    {
-        base.AfterFrameApply(source, destination);
-        destination.Metadata.AfterFrameApply(source, destination);
-    }
-
-    /// <inheritdoc/>
-    protected override void AfterImageApply(Image<TPixel> destination)
-    {
-        base.AfterImageApply(destination);
-        destination.Metadata.AfterImageApply(destination);
-    }
 }
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderTests.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderTests.cs
index f12f66186..d219f551b 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderTests.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderTests.cs
@@ -419,4 +419,15 @@ public class GifEncoderTests
             }
         });
     }
+
+    [Theory]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Issues.Issue2866, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void GifEncoder_CanDecode_Issue2866<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+    where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage();
+
+        // image.DebugSaveMultiFrame(provider);
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(image, "gif", new GifEncoder(), "animated");
+    }
 }
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Png/PngEncoderTests.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Png/PngEncoderTests.cs
index b4995d77b..298d5b788 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Png/PngEncoderTests.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Png/PngEncoderTests.cs
@@ -442,11 +442,12 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
     }
 
     [Theory]
-    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Leo, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
-    public void Encode_AnimatedFormatTransform_FromGif<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Leo, PixelTypes.Rgba32, 0.613F)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Issues.Issue2866, PixelTypes.Rgba32, 1.06F)]
+    public void Encode_AnimatedFormatTransform_FromGif<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider, float percentage)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        if (TestEnvironment.RunsOnCI && !TestEnvironment.IsWindows)
+        if (TestEnvironment.RunsOnCI)
         {
             return;
         }
@@ -457,12 +458,14 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
         image.Save(memStream, PngEncoder);
         memStream.Position = 0;
 
+        image.DebugSave(provider: provider, extension: "png", encoder: PngEncoder);
+
         using Image<TPixel> output = Image.Load<TPixel>(memStream);
 
         // TODO: Find a better way to compare.
-        // The image has been visually checked but the quantization pattern used in the png encoder
-        // means we cannot use an exact comparison nor replicate using the quantizing processor.
-        ImageComparer.TolerantPercentage(0.613f).VerifySimilarity(output, image);
+        // The image has been visually checked but the coarse cache used by the palette quantizer
+        // can lead to minor differences between frames.
+        ImageComparer.TolerantPercentage(percentage).VerifySimilarity(output, image);
 
         GifMetadata gif = image.Metadata.GetGifMetadata();
         PngMetadata png = output.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
@@ -641,7 +644,7 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
         encoded.CompareToReferenceOutput(ImageComparer.Exact, provider);
     }
 
-    // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2469
+    // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2668
     [Theory]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Png.Issue2668, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     public void Issue2668_Quantized_Encode_Alpha<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
@@ -657,6 +660,35 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
         encoded.CompareToReferenceOutput(ImageComparer.Exact, provider);
     }
 
+    [Fact]
+    public void Issue_2862()
+    {
+        // Create a grayscale palette (or any other palette with colors that are very close to each other):
+        Rgba32[] palette = [.. Enumerable.Range(0, 256).Select(i => new Rgba32((byte)i, (byte)i, (byte)i))];
+
+        using Image<Rgba32> image = new(254, 4);
+        for (int y = 0; y < image.Height; y++)
+        {
+            for (int x = 0; x < image.Width; x++)
+            {
+                image[x, y] = palette[x];
+            }
+        }
+
+        using MemoryStream ms = new();
+        image.Save(ms, new PngEncoder
+        {
+            ColorType = PngColorType.Palette,
+            BitDepth = PngBitDepth.Bit8,
+            Quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(palette.Select(Color.FromPixel).ToArray())
+        });
+
+        ms.Position = 0;
+
+        using Image<Rgba32> encoded = Image.Load<Rgba32>(ms);
+        ImageComparer.Exact.VerifySimilarity(image, encoded);
+    }
+
     private static void TestPngEncoderCore<TPixel>(
         TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider,
         PngColorType pngColorType,
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpCommonUtilsTests.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpCommonUtilsTests.cs
index a3fe028db..1491cd13c 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpCommonUtilsTests.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpCommonUtilsTests.cs
@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ public class WebpCommonUtilsTests
             174, 183, 189, 255,
             148, 158, 158, 255,
         };
-        Span<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>(rowBytes);
+        ReadOnlySpan<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>(rowBytes);
 
         bool noneOpaque;
         for (int length = 8; length < row.Length; length += 8)
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@ public class WebpCommonUtilsTests
             174, 183, 189, 255,
             148, 158, 158, 255,
         };
-        Span<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>(rowBytes);
+        ReadOnlySpan<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>(rowBytes);
 
         bool noneOpaque;
         for (int length = 8; length < row.Length; length += 8)
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpDecoderTests.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpDecoderTests.cs
index 657ab2554..adabb727d 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpDecoderTests.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpDecoderTests.cs
@@ -450,6 +450,22 @@ public class WebpDecoderTests
         image.CompareToOriginal(provider, ReferenceDecoder);
     }
 
+    // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2866
+    [Theory]
+    [WithFile(Lossy.Issue2866, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void WebpDecoder_CanDecode_Issue2866<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        // Web
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage(
+            WebpDecoder.Instance,
+            new WebpDecoderOptions() { BackgroundColorHandling = BackgroundColorHandling.Ignore });
+
+        // We can't use the reference decoder here.
+        // It creates frames of different size without blending the frames.
+        image.DebugSave(provider, extension: "webp", encoder: new WebpEncoder());
+    }
+
     [Theory]
     [WithFile(Lossless.LossLessCorruptImage3, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     public void WebpDecoder_ThrowImageFormatException_OnInvalidImages<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageFrameTests.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageFrameTests.cs
index e09ef487a..58cf32600 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageFrameTests.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageFrameTests.cs
@@ -119,7 +119,7 @@ public class ImageFrameTests
             }
             else
             {
-                Span<La16> destination = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, La16>(actual);
+                Span<La16> destination = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, La16>(actual.AsSpan());
                 image.Frames.RootFrame.CopyPixelDataTo(destination);
             }
 
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageTests.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageTests.cs
index ac91ea948..291e52381 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageTests.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Image/ImageTests.cs
@@ -197,7 +197,7 @@ public partial class ImageTests
             }
             else
             {
-                Span<La16> destination = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, La16>(actual);
+                Span<La16> destination = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, La16>(actual.AsSpan());
                 image.CopyPixelDataTo(destination);
             }
 
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Quantization/WuQuantizerTests.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Quantization/WuQuantizerTests.cs
index 74f2fc3b4..28a7c49e5 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Quantization/WuQuantizerTests.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Quantization/WuQuantizerTests.cs
@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ public class WuQuantizerTests
         }
 
         Configuration config = Configuration.Default;
-        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null });
+        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null, TransparencyThreshold = 0 });
 
         ImageFrame<Rgba32> frame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
 
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ public class WuQuantizerTests
         }
 
         Configuration config = Configuration.Default;
-        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null });
+        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null, TransparencyThreshold = 0 });
 
         ImageFrame<Rgba32> frame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
         using (IQuantizer<Rgba32> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<Rgba32>(config))
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestImages.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestImages.cs
index fafa1d242..462d54154 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestImages.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestImages.cs
@@ -536,6 +536,7 @@ public static class TestImages
             public const string Issue2450_B = "Gif/issues/issue_2450_2.gif";
             public const string Issue2198 = "Gif/issues/issue_2198.gif";
             public const string Issue2758 = "Gif/issues/issue_2758.gif";
+            public const string Issue2866 = "Gif/issues/issue_2866.gif";
             public const string Issue2859_A = "Gif/issues/issue_2859_A.gif";
             public const string Issue2859_B = "Gif/issues/issue_2859_B.gif";
         }
@@ -830,6 +831,7 @@ public static class TestImages
             public const string Issue2670 = "Webp/issues/Issue2670.webp";
             public const string Issue2763 = "Webp/issues/Issue2763.png";
             public const string Issue2801 = "Webp/issues/Issue2801.webp";
+            public const string Issue2866 = "Webp/issues/Issue2866.webp";
         }
     }
 
diff --git a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestUtilities/ReferenceCodecs/MagickReferenceDecoder.cs b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestUtilities/ReferenceCodecs/MagickReferenceDecoder.cs
index 74015a4ef..34c8170c3 100644
--- a/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestUtilities/ReferenceCodecs/MagickReferenceDecoder.cs
+++ b/tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestUtilities/ReferenceCodecs/MagickReferenceDecoder.cs
@@ -64,20 +64,27 @@ public class MagickReferenceDecoder : ImageDecoder
         settings.SetDefines(pngReadDefines);
 
         using MagickImageCollection magickImageCollection = new(stream, settings);
+        int imageWidth = magickImageCollection.Max(x => x.Width);
+        int imageHeight = magickImageCollection.Max(x => x.Height);
+
         List<ImageFrame<TPixel>> framesList = [];
         foreach (IMagickImage<ushort> magicFrame in magickImageCollection)
         {
-            ImageFrame<TPixel> frame = new(configuration, (int)magicFrame.Width, (int)magicFrame.Height);
+            ImageFrame<TPixel> frame = new(configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight);
             framesList.Add(frame);
 
-            MemoryGroup<TPixel> framePixels = frame.PixelBuffer.FastMemoryGroup;
+            Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> buffer = frame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(
+                imageWidth - magicFrame.Width,
+                imageHeight - magicFrame.Height,
+                magicFrame.Width,
+                magicFrame.Height);
 
             using IUnsafePixelCollection<ushort> pixels = magicFrame.GetPixelsUnsafe();
             if (magicFrame.Depth is 12 or 10 or 8 or 6 or 5 or 4 or 3 or 2 or 1)
             {
                 byte[] data = pixels.ToByteArray(PixelMapping.RGBA);
 
-                FromRgba32Bytes(configuration, data, framePixels);
+                FromRgba32Bytes(configuration, data, buffer);
             }
             else if (magicFrame.Depth is 16 or 14)
             {
@@ -88,7 +95,7 @@ public class MagickReferenceDecoder : ImageDecoder
 
                 ushort[] data = pixels.ToShortArray(PixelMapping.RGBA);
                 Span<byte> bytes = MemoryMarshal.Cast<ushort, byte>(data.AsSpan());
-                FromRgba64Bytes(configuration, bytes, framePixels);
+                FromRgba64Bytes(configuration, bytes, buffer);
             }
             else
             {
@@ -111,33 +118,40 @@ public class MagickReferenceDecoder : ImageDecoder
             PixelType = metadata.GetDecodedPixelTypeInfo()
         };
     }
-
-    private static void FromRgba32Bytes<TPixel>(Configuration configuration, Span<byte> rgbaBytes, IMemoryGroup<TPixel> destinationGroup)
+    private static void FromRgba32Bytes<TPixel>(
+        Configuration configuration,
+        Span<byte> rgbaBytes,
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> destinationGroup)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, ImageSharp.PixelFormats.IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         Span<Rgba32> sourcePixels = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Rgba32>(rgbaBytes);
-        foreach (Memory<TPixel> m in destinationGroup)
+        for (int y = 0; y < destinationGroup.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = m.Span;
+            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = destinationGroup.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromRgba32(
                 configuration,
                 sourcePixels[..destBuffer.Length],
                 destBuffer);
+
             sourcePixels = sourcePixels[destBuffer.Length..];
         }
     }
 
-    private static void FromRgba64Bytes<TPixel>(Configuration configuration, Span<byte> rgbaBytes, IMemoryGroup<TPixel> destinationGroup)
+    private static void FromRgba64Bytes<TPixel>(
+        Configuration configuration,
+        Span<byte> rgbaBytes,
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> destinationGroup)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, ImageSharp.PixelFormats.IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        foreach (Memory<TPixel> m in destinationGroup)
+        for (int y = 0; y < destinationGroup.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = m.Span;
+            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = destinationGroup.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromRgba64Bytes(
                 configuration,
                 rgbaBytes,
                 destBuffer,
                 destBuffer.Length);
+
             rgbaBytes = rgbaBytes[(destBuffer.Length * 8)..];
         }
     }
diff --git a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithOctreeQuantizer_rgb32.bmp b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithOctreeQuantizer_rgb32.bmp
index 2b8e05b07..291739dfa 100644
--- a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithOctreeQuantizer_rgb32.bmp
+++ b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithOctreeQuantizer_rgb32.bmp
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
-oid sha256:11375b15df083d98335f4a4baf0717e7fdd6b21ab2132a6815cadc787ac17e7d
+oid sha256:9d7441b03c24acb887b2d9a6e2346bb23e2d38293c3df3ff489d48593f87b29a
 size 9270
diff --git a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithWuQuantizer_rgb32.bmp b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithWuQuantizer_rgb32.bmp
index f7eb06c55..c69ed3130 100644
--- a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithWuQuantizer_rgb32.bmp
+++ b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithWuQuantizer_rgb32.bmp
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
-oid sha256:e063e97cd8a000de6830adcc3961a7dc41785d40cd4d83af10ca38d96e071362
+oid sha256:5d9f2745de2b6e7fc3b1403fe651f3bbba835c67a6fb410fc8a9d91a15b44328
 size 9270
diff --git a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDiffusionFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDiffusionFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png
index de42d1bfc..401ceaa36 100644
--- a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDiffusionFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png
+++ b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDiffusionFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
-oid sha256:681b0e36298cb702683fb9ffb2a82f7dfd9080b268db19a03f413809f69d0e07
-size 273269
+oid sha256:596472e74050d968479b672c1d2436b179e41a7b99fcefb53286ad47e5a4fe13
+size 273115
diff --git a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDitherFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDitherFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png
index 43e414da6..35ed6dee4 100644
--- a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDitherFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png
+++ b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDitherFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial.png
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
-oid sha256:a899a84c6af24bfad89f9fde75957c7a979d65bcf096ab667cb976efd71cb560
-size 271171
+oid sha256:a025a094c285cea8510430b0e3657bc59231b38132781e298d60a74238879912
+size 270699
diff --git a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Atkinson.png b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Atkinson.png
index 1656b2e9c..0b03e4e18 100644
--- a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Atkinson.png
+++ b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Atkinson.png
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
-oid sha256:38597c6144d61960d25c74d7a465b1cdf69b7c0804a6dec68128a6c953258313
-size 52688
+oid sha256:2465dde9a5d6202194f7af3924ca24ab3151948d551549a711977d3302dbc0a3
+size 51158
diff --git a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Burks.png b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Burks.png
index c6016ae35..1d27fab77 100644
--- a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Burks.png
+++ b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_Burks.png
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
-oid sha256:5f9191c71eea1f73aa4c55397ca26f240615c9c4a7fff9a05e6f2e046b5e4d8b
-size 62323
+oid sha256:82dcdd4f28a9ffafd36a21d06aee8adb49017df2d4abeee4205d65b1ae3df35e
+size 59875
diff --git a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_FloydSteinberg.png b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_FloydSteinberg.png
index 40243937d..51c93894d 100644
--- a/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_FloydSteinberg.png
+++ b/tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_Bike_FloydSteinberg.png
@@ -1,3 +1,3 @@
 version https://git-lfs.github.com/spec/v1
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