Merge pull request #2894 from SixLabors/js/fix-2866-v4

V4 : Fix GIF, PNG, and WEBP Edge Case Handling

src/ImageSharp/Advanced/AotCompilerTools.cs

@@ -138,10 +138,11 @@ internal static class AotCompilerTools
         AotCompileResamplers<TPixel>();
         AotCompileQuantizers<TPixel>();
         AotCompilePixelSamplingStrategys<TPixel>();
+        AotCompilePixelMaps<TPixel>();
         AotCompileDithers<TPixel>();
         AotCompileMemoryManagers<TPixel>();
 
-        Unsafe.SizeOf<TPixel>();
+        _ = Unsafe.SizeOf<TPixel>();
 
         // TODO: Do the discovery work to figure out what works and what doesn't.
     }
@@ -514,6 +515,20 @@ internal static class AotCompilerTools
         default(ExtensivePixelSamplingStrategy).EnumeratePixelRegions(default(ImageFrame<TPixel>));
     }
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// This method pre-seeds the all <see cref="IColorIndexCache{T}" /> in the AoT compiler.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
+    [Preserve]
+    private static void AotCompilePixelMaps<TPixel>()
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        default(EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, HybridCache>).GetClosestColor(default, out _);
+        default(EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, AccurateCache>).GetClosestColor(default, out _);
+        default(EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, CoarseCache>).GetClosestColor(default, out _);
+        default(EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, NullCache>).GetClosestColor(default, out _);
+    }
+
     /// <summary>
     /// This method pre-seeds the all <see cref="IDither" /> in the AoT compiler.
     /// </summary>

src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.cs

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+// <auto-generated />
+
+using System;
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp;
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a safe, fixed sized buffer of 4 elements.
+/// </summary>
+[InlineArray(4)]
+internal struct InlineArray4<T>
+{
+    private T t;
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a safe, fixed sized buffer of 8 elements.
+/// </summary>
+[InlineArray(8)]
+internal struct InlineArray8<T>
+{
+    private T t;
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a safe, fixed sized buffer of 16 elements.
+/// </summary>
+[InlineArray(16)]
+internal struct InlineArray16<T>
+{
+    private T t;
+}
+
+

src/ImageSharp/Common/InlineArray.tt

@@ -0,0 +1,38 @@
+<#@ template debug="false" hostspecific="false" language="C#" #>
+<#@ assembly name="System.Core" #>
+<#@ import namespace="System.Linq" #>
+<#@ import namespace="System.Text" #>
+<#@ import namespace="System.Collections.Generic" #>
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+// <auto-generated />
+
+using System;
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp;
+
+<#GenerateInlineArrays();#>
+
+<#+
+private static int[] Lengths = new int[] {4, 8, 16 };
+
+void GenerateInlineArrays()
+{
+    foreach (int length in Lengths)
+    {
+#>
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a safe, fixed sized buffer of <#=length#> elements.
+/// </summary>
+[InlineArray(<#=length#>)]
+internal struct InlineArray<#=length#><T>
+{
+    private T t;
+}
+
+<#+
+    }
+}
+#>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/AlphaAwareImageEncoder.cs

@@ -1,6 +1,8 @@
 // Copyright (c) Six Labors.
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
+
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats;
 
 /// <summary>
@@ -10,6 +12,8 @@ public abstract class AlphaAwareImageEncoder : ImageEncoder
 {
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets or initializes the mode that determines how transparent pixels are handled during encoding.
+    /// This overrides any other settings that may affect the encoding of transparent pixels
+    /// including those passed via <see cref="QuantizerOptions"/>.
     /// </summary>
     public TransparentColorMode TransparentColorMode { get; init; }
 }

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Bmp/BmpEncoderCore.cs

@@ -362,10 +362,13 @@ internal sealed class BmpEncoderCore
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? clonedFrame = null;
         try
         {
-            if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.transparentColorMode))
+            // No need to clone when quantizing. The quantizer will do it for us.
+            // TODO: We should really try to avoid the clone entirely.
+            int bpp = this.bitsPerPixel != null ? (int)this.bitsPerPixel : 32;
+            if (bpp > 8 && EncodingUtilities.ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.transparentColorMode))
             {
                 clonedFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame.Clone();
-                EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(clonedFrame, Color.Transparent);
+                EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(clonedFrame);
             }
 
             ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = clonedFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Bmp/BmpMetadata.cs

@@ -158,6 +158,5 @@ public class BmpMetadata : IFormatMetadata<BmpMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
-    }
 }

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurFrameMetadata.cs

@@ -104,7 +104,6 @@ public class CurFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<CurFrameMetadata>
             Compression = compression,
             EncodingWidth = ClampEncodingDimension(metadata.EncodingWidth),
             EncodingHeight = ClampEncodingDimension(metadata.EncodingHeight),
-            ColorTable = compression == IconFrameCompression.Bmp ? metadata.ColorTable : null
         };
     }
 
@@ -113,7 +112,6 @@ public class CurFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<CurFrameMetadata>
         => new()
         {
             PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo(),
-            ColorTable = this.ColorTable,
             EncodingWidth = this.EncodingWidth,
             EncodingHeight = this.EncodingHeight
         };
@@ -126,6 +124,7 @@ public class CurFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<CurFrameMetadata>
         float ratioY = destination.Height / (float)source.Height;
         this.EncodingWidth = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingWidth, destination.Width, ratioX);
         this.EncodingHeight = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingHeight, destination.Height, ratioY);
+        this.ColorTable = null;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Cur/CurMetadata.cs

@@ -71,8 +71,7 @@ public class CurMetadata : IFormatMetadata<CurMetadata>
         return new CurMetadata
         {
             BmpBitsPerPixel = bbpp,
-            Compression = compression,
+            Compression = compression
-            ColorTable = compression == IconFrameCompression.Bmp ? metadata.ColorTable : null
         };
     }
 
@@ -145,15 +144,13 @@ public class CurMetadata : IFormatMetadata<CurMetadata>
             EncodingType = this.Compression == IconFrameCompression.Bmp && this.BmpBitsPerPixel <= BmpBitsPerPixel.Bit8
                 ? EncodingType.Lossy
                 : EncodingType.Lossless,
-            PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo(),
+            PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo()
-            ColorTable = this.ColorTable
         };
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();

src/ImageSharp/Formats/EncodingUtilities.cs

@@ -3,6 +3,8 @@
 
 using System.Buffers;
 using System.Numerics;
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
 using System.Runtime.Intrinsics;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Memory;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
@@ -14,62 +16,132 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats;
 /// </summary>
 internal static class EncodingUtilities
 {
-    public static bool ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(TransparentColorMode mode)
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Determines if transparent pixels can be replaced based on the specified color mode and pixel type.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
+    /// <param name="mode">Indicates the color mode used to assess the ability to replace transparent pixels.</param>
+    /// <returns>Returns true if transparent pixels can be replaced; otherwise, false.</returns>
+    public static bool ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(TransparentColorMode mode)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+        => mode == TransparentColorMode.Clear && TPixel.GetPixelTypeInfo().AlphaRepresentation == PixelAlphaRepresentation.Unassociated;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Replaces pixels with a transparent alpha component with fully transparent pixels.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
+    /// <param name="frame">The <see cref="ImageFrame{TPixel}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
+    public static void ReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> frame)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-        => mode == TransparentColorMode.Clear &&
+        => ReplaceTransparentPixels(frame.Configuration, frame.PixelBuffer);
-                   TPixel.GetPixelTypeInfo().AlphaRepresentation == PixelAlphaRepresentation.Unassociated;
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// Convert transparent pixels, to pixels represented by <paramref name="color"/>, which can yield
+    /// Replaces pixels with a transparent alpha component with fully transparent pixels.
-    /// to better compression in some cases.
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
-    /// <param name="clone">The cloned <see cref="ImageFrame{TPixel}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
+    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="color">The color to replace transparent pixels with.</param>
+    /// <param name="buffer">The  <see cref="Buffer2D{TPixel}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
-    public static void ClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> clone, Color color)
+    [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+    public static void ReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(Configuration configuration, Buffer2D<TPixel> buffer)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> buffer = clone.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region = buffer.GetRegion();
-        ClearTransparentPixels(clone.Configuration, ref buffer, color);
+        ReplaceTransparentPixels(configuration, in region);
     }
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// Convert transparent pixels, to pixels represented by <paramref name="color"/>, which can yield
+    /// Replaces pixels with a transparent alpha component with fully transparent pixels.
-    /// to better compression in some cases.
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="clone">The cloned <see cref="Buffer2DRegion{T}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
+    /// <param name="region">The <see cref="Buffer2DRegion{T}"/> where the transparent pixels will be changed.</param>
-    /// <param name="color">The color to replace transparent pixels with.</param>
+    public static void ReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(
-    public static void ClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(
         Configuration configuration,
-        ref Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> clone,
+        in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region)
-        Color color)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        using IMemoryOwner<Vector4> vectors = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Vector4>(clone.Width);
+        using IMemoryOwner<Vector4> vectors = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Vector4>(region.Width);
         Span<Vector4> vectorsSpan = vectors.GetSpan();
-        Vector4 replacement = color.ToScaledVector4();
+        for (int y = 0; y < region.Height; y++)
-        for (int y = 0; y < clone.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<TPixel> span = clone.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+            Span<TPixel> span = region.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, span, vectorsSpan, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
-            ClearTransparentPixelRow(vectorsSpan, replacement);
+            ReplaceTransparentPixels(vectorsSpan);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorsSpan, span, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
         }
     }
 
-    private static void ClearTransparentPixelRow(
+    /// <summary>
-        Span<Vector4> vectorsSpan,
+    /// Replaces pixels with a transparent alpha component with fully transparent pixels.
-        Vector4 replacement)
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="source">A span of color vectors that will be checked for transparency and potentially modified.</param>
+    public static void ReplaceTransparentPixels(Span<Vector4> source)
     {
-        if (Vector128.IsHardwareAccelerated)
+        if (Vector512.IsHardwareAccelerated && source.Length >= 4)
+        {
+            Span<Vector512<float>> source512 = MemoryMarshal.Cast<Vector4, Vector512<float>>(source);
+            for (int i = 0; i < source512.Length; i++)
+            {
+                ref Vector512<float> v = ref source512[i];
+
+                // Do `vector < threshold`
+                Vector512<float> mask = Vector512.Equals(v, Vector512<float>.Zero);
+
+                // Replicate the result for W to all elements (is AllBitsSet if the W was 0 and Zero otherwise)
+                mask = Vector512.Shuffle(mask, Vector512.Create(3, 3, 3, 3, 7, 7, 7, 7, 11, 11, 11, 11, 15, 15, 15, 15));
+
+                // Use the mask to select the replacement vector
+                // (replacement & mask) | (v512 & ~mask)
+                v = Vector512.ConditionalSelect(mask, Vector512<float>.Zero, v);
+            }
+
+            int m = Numerics.Modulo4(source.Length);
+            if (m != 0)
+            {
+                for (int i = source.Length - m; i < source.Length; i++)
+                {
+                    if (source[i].W == 0)
+                    {
+                        source[i] = Vector4.Zero;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        else if (Vector256.IsHardwareAccelerated && source.Length >= 2)
         {
-            Vector128<float> replacement128 = replacement.AsVector128();
+            Span<Vector256<float>> source256 = MemoryMarshal.Cast<Vector4, Vector256<float>>(source);
+            for (int i = 0; i < source256.Length; i++)
+            {
+                ref Vector256<float> v = ref source256[i];
+
+                // Do `vector < threshold`
+                Vector256<float> mask = Vector256.Equals(v, Vector256<float>.Zero);
+
+                // Replicate the result for W to all elements (is AllBitsSet if the W was 0 and Zero otherwise)
+                mask = Vector256.Shuffle(mask, Vector256.Create(3, 3, 3, 3, 7, 7, 7, 7));
 
-            for (int i = 0; i < vectorsSpan.Length; i++)
+                // Use the mask to select the replacement vector
+                // (replacement & mask) | (v256 & ~mask)
+                v = Vector256.ConditionalSelect(mask, Vector256<float>.Zero, v);
+            }
+
+            int m = Numerics.Modulo2(source.Length);
+            if (m != 0)
+            {
+                for (int i = source.Length - m; i < source.Length; i++)
+                {
+                    if (source[i].W == 0)
+                    {
+                        source[i] = Vector4.Zero;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        else if (Vector128.IsHardwareAccelerated)
+        {
+            for (int i = 0; i < source.Length; i++)
             {
-                ref Vector4 v = ref vectorsSpan[i];
+                ref Vector4 v = ref source[i];
                 Vector128<float> v128 = v.AsVector128();
 
                 // Do `vector == 0`
@@ -80,16 +152,16 @@ internal static class EncodingUtilities
 
                 // Use the mask to select the replacement vector
                 // (replacement & mask) | (v128 & ~mask)
-                v = Vector128.ConditionalSelect(mask, replacement128, v128).AsVector4();
+                v = Vector128.ConditionalSelect(mask, Vector128<float>.Zero, v128).AsVector4();
             }
         }
         else
         {
-            for (int i = 0; i < vectorsSpan.Length; i++)
+            for (int i = 0; i < source.Length; i++)
             {
-                if (vectorsSpan[i].W == 0F)
+                if (source[i].W == 0F)
                 {
-                    vectorsSpan[i] = replacement;
+                    source[i] = Vector4.Zero;
                 }
             }
         }

src/ImageSharp/Formats/FormatConnectingFrameMetadata.cs

@@ -15,11 +15,6 @@ public class FormatConnectingFrameMetadata
     /// </summary>
     public PixelTypeInfo? PixelTypeInfo { get; init; }
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Gets the frame color table if any.
-    /// </summary>
-    public ReadOnlyMemory<Color>? ColorTable { get; init; }
-
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the frame color table mode.
     /// </summary>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/FormatConnectingMetadata.cs

@@ -28,11 +28,6 @@ public class FormatConnectingMetadata
     /// </summary>
     public PixelTypeInfo PixelTypeInfo { get; init; }
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Gets the shared color table if any.
-    /// </summary>
-    public ReadOnlyMemory<Color>? ColorTable { get; init; }
-
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the shared color table mode.
     /// </summary>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifDecoderCore.cs

@@ -89,6 +89,11 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// </summary>
     private GifMetadata? gifMetadata;
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The background color index.
+    /// </summary>
+    private byte backgroundColorIndex;
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="GifDecoderCore"/> class.
     /// </summary>
@@ -108,6 +113,10 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
         uint frameCount = 0;
         Image<TPixel>? image = null;
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame = null;
+        FrameDisposalMode? previousDisposalMode = null;
+        bool globalColorTableUsed = false;
+        Color backgroundColor = Color.Transparent;
+
         try
         {
             this.ReadLogicalScreenDescriptorAndGlobalColorTable(stream);
@@ -123,7 +132,7 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                         break;
                     }
 
-                    this.ReadFrame(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame);
+                    globalColorTableUsed |= this.ReadFrame(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, ref previousDisposalMode, ref backgroundColor);
 
                     // Reset per-frame state.
                     this.imageDescriptor = default;
@@ -158,6 +167,13 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                     break;
                 }
             }
+
+            // We cannot always trust the global GIF palette has actually been used.
+            // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2866
+            if (!globalColorTableUsed)
+            {
+                this.gifMetadata.ColorTableMode = FrameColorTableMode.Local;
+            }
         }
         finally
         {
@@ -179,6 +195,8 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
         uint frameCount = 0;
         ImageFrameMetadata? previousFrame = null;
         List<ImageFrameMetadata> framesMetadata = [];
+        bool globalColorTableUsed = false;
+
         try
         {
             this.ReadLogicalScreenDescriptorAndGlobalColorTable(stream);
@@ -194,7 +212,7 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                         break;
                     }
 
-                    this.ReadFrameMetadata(stream, framesMetadata, ref previousFrame);
+                    globalColorTableUsed |= this.ReadFrameMetadata(stream, framesMetadata, ref previousFrame);
 
                     // Reset per-frame state.
                     this.imageDescriptor = default;
@@ -229,6 +247,13 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                     break;
                 }
             }
+
+            // We cannot always trust the global GIF palette has actually been used.
+            // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2866
+            if (!globalColorTableUsed)
+            {
+                this.gifMetadata.ColorTableMode = FrameColorTableMode.Local;
+            }
         }
         finally
         {
@@ -416,7 +441,15 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// <param name="stream">The <see cref="BufferedReadStream"/> containing image data.</param>
     /// <param name="image">The image to decode the information to.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame.</param>
-    private void ReadFrame<TPixel>(BufferedReadStream stream, ref Image<TPixel>? image, ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame)
+    /// <param name="previousDisposalMode">The previous frame disposal mode.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundColor">The background color.</param>
+    /// <returns>Whether the frame has a global color table.</returns>
+    private bool ReadFrame<TPixel>(
+        BufferedReadStream stream,
+        ref Image<TPixel>? image,
+        ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame,
+        ref FrameDisposalMode? previousDisposalMode,
+        ref Color backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         this.ReadImageDescriptor(stream);
@@ -438,10 +471,52 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
         }
 
         ReadOnlySpan<Rgb24> colorTable = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Rgb24>(rawColorTable);
-        this.ReadFrameColors(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, colorTable);
+
+        // First frame
+        if (image is null)
+        {
+            if (this.backgroundColorIndex < colorTable.Length)
+            {
+                backgroundColor = Color.FromPixel(colorTable[this.backgroundColorIndex]);
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                backgroundColor = Color.Transparent;
+            }
+
+            if (this.graphicsControlExtension.TransparencyFlag)
+            {
+                backgroundColor = backgroundColor.WithAlpha(0);
+            }
+        }
+
+        this.ReadFrameColors(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, ref previousDisposalMode, colorTable, backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>());
+
+        // Update from newly decoded frame.
+        if (this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod != FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToPrevious)
+        {
+            if (this.backgroundColorIndex < colorTable.Length)
+            {
+                backgroundColor = Color.FromPixel(colorTable[this.backgroundColorIndex]);
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                backgroundColor = Color.Transparent;
+            }
+
+            // TODO: I don't understand why this is always set to alpha of zero.
+            // This should be dependent on the transparency flag of the graphics
+            // control extension. ImageMagick does the same.
+            // if (this.graphicsControlExtension.TransparencyFlag)
+            {
+                backgroundColor = backgroundColor.WithAlpha(0);
+            }
+        }
 
         // Skip any remaining blocks
         SkipBlock(stream);
+
+        return !hasLocalColorTable;
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -451,56 +526,73 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// <param name="stream">The <see cref="BufferedReadStream"/> containing image data.</param>
     /// <param name="image">The image to decode the information to.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame.</param>
+    /// <param name="previousDisposalMode">The previous frame disposal mode.</param>
     /// <param name="colorTable">The color table containing the available colors.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundPixel">The background color pixel.</param>
     private void ReadFrameColors<TPixel>(
         BufferedReadStream stream,
         ref Image<TPixel>? image,
         ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame,
-        ReadOnlySpan<Rgb24> colorTable)
+        ref FrameDisposalMode? previousDisposalMode,
+        ReadOnlySpan<Rgb24> colorTable,
+        TPixel backgroundPixel)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         GifImageDescriptor descriptor = this.imageDescriptor;
         int imageWidth = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.Width;
         int imageHeight = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.Height;
         bool transFlag = this.graphicsControlExtension.TransparencyFlag;
+        FrameDisposalMode disposalMethod = this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod;
+        ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame;
+        ImageFrame<TPixel>? restoreFrame = null;
 
-        ImageFrame<TPixel>? prevFrame = null;
+        if (previousFrame is null && previousDisposalMode is null)
-        ImageFrame<TPixel>? currentFrame = null;
+        {
-        ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame;
+            image = transFlag
+                ? new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, this.metadata)
+                : new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, backgroundPixel, this.metadata);
 
-        if (previousFrame is null)
+            this.SetFrameMetadata(image.Frames.RootFrame.Metadata);
+            currentFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
+        }
+        else
         {
-            if (!transFlag)
+            if (previousFrame != null)
             {
-                image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, Color.Black.ToPixel<TPixel>(), this.metadata);
+                currentFrame = image!.Frames.AddFrame(previousFrame);
             }
             else
             {
-                // This initializes the image to become fully transparent because the alpha channel is zero.
+                currentFrame = image!.Frames.CreateFrame(backgroundPixel);
-                image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight, this.metadata);
             }
 
-            this.SetFrameMetadata(image.Frames.RootFrame.Metadata);
+            this.SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata);
 
-            imageFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
-        }
-        else
-        {
             if (this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToPrevious)
             {
-                prevFrame = previousFrame;
+                restoreFrame = previousFrame;
             }
 
-            // We create a clone of the frame and add it.
+            if (previousDisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
-            // We will overpaint the difference of pixels on the current frame to create a complete image.
+            {
-            // This ensures that we have enough pixel data to process without distortion. #2450
+                this.RestoreToBackground(currentFrame, backgroundPixel, transFlag);
-            currentFrame = image!.Frames.AddFrame(previousFrame);
+            }
+        }
 
-            this.SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata);
+        if (this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToPrevious)
+        {
+            previousFrame = restoreFrame;
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            previousFrame = currentFrame;
+        }
 
-            imageFrame = currentFrame;
+        previousDisposalMode = disposalMethod;
 
-            this.RestoreToBackground(imageFrame);
+        if (disposalMethod == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
+        {
+            this.restoreArea = Rectangle.Intersect(image.Bounds, new(descriptor.Left, descriptor.Top, descriptor.Width, descriptor.Height));
         }
 
         if (colorTable.Length == 0)
@@ -568,7 +660,7 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
                 // #403 The left + width value can be larger than the image width
                 int maxX = Math.Min(descriptorRight, imageWidth);
-                Span<TPixel> row = imageFrame.PixelBuffer.DangerousGetRowSpan(writeY);
+                Span<TPixel> row = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.DangerousGetRowSpan(writeY);
 
                 // Take the descriptorLeft..maxX slice of the row, so the loop can be simplified.
                 row = row[descriptorLeft..maxX];
@@ -599,19 +691,6 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
                 }
             }
         }
-
-        if (prevFrame != null)
-        {
-            previousFrame = prevFrame;
-            return;
-        }
-
-        previousFrame = currentFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;
-
-        if (this.graphicsControlExtension.DisposalMethod == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
-        {
-            this.restoreArea = new Rectangle(descriptor.Left, descriptor.Top, descriptor.Width, descriptor.Height);
-        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -620,7 +699,8 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// <param name="stream">The <see cref="BufferedReadStream"/> containing image data.</param>
     /// <param name="frameMetadata">The collection of frame metadata.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame metadata.</param>
-    private void ReadFrameMetadata(BufferedReadStream stream, List<ImageFrameMetadata> frameMetadata, ref ImageFrameMetadata? previousFrame)
+    /// <returns>Whether the frame has a global color table.</returns>
+    private bool ReadFrameMetadata(BufferedReadStream stream, List<ImageFrameMetadata> frameMetadata, ref ImageFrameMetadata? previousFrame)
     {
         this.ReadImageDescriptor(stream);
 
@@ -632,6 +712,11 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             this.currentLocalColorTable ??= this.configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(768, AllocationOptions.Clean);
             stream.Read(this.currentLocalColorTable.GetSpan()[..length]);
         }
+        else
+        {
+            this.currentLocalColorTable = null;
+            this.currentLocalColorTableSize = 0;
+        }
 
         // Skip the frame indices. Pixels length + mincode size.
         // The gif format does not tell us the length of the compressed data beforehand.
@@ -649,6 +734,8 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
         // Skip any remaining blocks
         SkipBlock(stream);
+
+        return !this.imageDescriptor.LocalColorTableFlag;
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -656,7 +743,9 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="frame">The frame.</param>
-    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> frame)
+    /// <param name="background">The background color.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparent">Whether the background is transparent.</param>
+    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> frame, TPixel background, bool transparent)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (this.restoreArea is null)
@@ -666,7 +755,14 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
         Rectangle interest = Rectangle.Intersect(frame.Bounds, this.restoreArea.Value);
         Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion = frame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(interest);
-        pixelRegion.Clear();
+        if (transparent)
+        {
+            pixelRegion.Clear();
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            pixelRegion.Fill(background);
+        }
 
         this.restoreArea = null;
     }
@@ -775,7 +871,9 @@ internal sealed class GifDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             }
         }
 
-        this.gifMetadata.BackgroundColorIndex = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.BackgroundColorIndex;
+        byte index = this.logicalScreenDescriptor.BackgroundColorIndex;
+        this.backgroundColorIndex = index;
+        this.gifMetadata.BackgroundColorIndex = index;
     }
 
     private unsafe struct ScratchBuffer

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderCore.cs

@@ -9,7 +9,6 @@ using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Memory;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Metadata;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Metadata.Profiles.Xmp;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
-using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Gif;
@@ -19,6 +18,8 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Gif;
 /// </summary>
 internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
 {
+    private readonly GifEncoder encoder;
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Used for allocating memory during processing operations.
     /// </summary>
@@ -34,16 +35,6 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
     /// </summary>
     private readonly bool skipMetadata;
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// The quantizer used to generate the color palette.
-    /// </summary>
-    private IQuantizer? quantizer;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Whether the quantizer was supplied via options.
-    /// </summary>
-    private readonly bool hasQuantizer;
-
     /// <summary>
     /// The color table mode: Global or local.
     /// </summary>
@@ -67,6 +58,9 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
     /// </summary>
     private readonly ushort? repeatCount;
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The transparent color mode.
+    /// </summary>
     private readonly TransparentColorMode transparentColorMode;
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -78,9 +72,8 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
     {
         this.configuration = configuration;
         this.memoryAllocator = configuration.MemoryAllocator;
+        this.encoder = encoder;
         this.skipMetadata = encoder.SkipMetadata;
-        this.quantizer = encoder.Quantizer;
-        this.hasQuantizer = encoder.Quantizer is not null;
         this.colorTableMode = encoder.ColorTableMode;
         this.pixelSamplingStrategy = encoder.PixelSamplingStrategy;
         this.backgroundColor = encoder.BackgroundColor;
@@ -104,70 +97,76 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         GifMetadata gifMetadata = image.Metadata.CloneGifMetadata();
         this.colorTableMode ??= gifMetadata.ColorTableMode;
         bool useGlobalTable = this.colorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Global;
-
+        bool useGlobalTableForFirstFrame = useGlobalTable;
-        // Quantize the first image frame returning a palette.
-        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = null;
 
         // Work out if there is an explicit transparent index set for the frame. We use that to ensure the
         // correct value is set for the background index when quantizing.
         GifFrameMetadata frameMetadata = GetGifFrameMetadata(image.Frames.RootFrame, -1);
+        if (frameMetadata.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local)
+        {
+            useGlobalTableForFirstFrame = false;
+        }
+
+        // Quantize the first image frame returning a palette.
+        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = null;
+        IQuantizer? globalQuantizer = this.encoder.Quantizer;
+        TransparentColorMode mode = this.transparentColorMode;
 
-        if (this.quantizer is null)
+        // Create a new quantizer options instance augmenting the transparent color mode to match the encoder.
+        QuantizerOptions options = (this.encoder.Quantizer?.Options ?? new()).DeepClone(o => o.TransparentColorMode = mode);
+
+        if (globalQuantizer is null)
         {
             // Is this a gif with color information. If so use that, otherwise use octree.
             if (gifMetadata.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Global && gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable?.Length > 0)
             {
-                // We avoid dithering by default to preserve the original colors.
                 int transparencyIndex = GetTransparentIndex(quantized, frameMetadata);
                 if (transparencyIndex >= 0 || gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable.Value.Length < 256)
                 {
-                    this.quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable.Value, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex);
+                    // We avoid dithering by default to preserve the original colors.
+                    globalQuantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(gifMetadata.GlobalColorTable.Value, options.DeepClone(o => o.Dither = null));
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    this.quantizer = KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                    globalQuantizer = new OctreeQuantizer(options);
                 }
             }
             else
             {
-                this.quantizer = KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                globalQuantizer = new OctreeQuantizer(options);
             }
         }
 
-        // Quantize the first frame. Checking to see whether we can clear the transparent pixels
+        // Quantize the first frame.
-        // to allow for a smaller color palette and encoded result.
+        IPixelSamplingStrategy strategy = this.pixelSamplingStrategy;
-        using (IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = this.quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration))
-        {
-            ImageFrame<TPixel>? clonedFrame = null;
-            Configuration configuration = this.configuration;
-            TransparentColorMode mode = this.transparentColorMode;
-            IPixelSamplingStrategy strategy = this.pixelSamplingStrategy;
-            if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(mode))
-            {
-                clonedFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame.Clone();
-
-                GifFrameMetadata frameMeta = clonedFrame.Metadata.GetGifMetadata();
-                Color background = frameMeta.DisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
-                    ? this.backgroundColor ?? Color.Transparent
-                    : Color.Transparent;
-
-                EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(clonedFrame, background);
-            }
-
-            ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = clonedFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;
 
+        ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
+        if (useGlobalTableForFirstFrame)
+        {
+            using IQuantizer<TPixel> firstFrameQuantizer = globalQuantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, options);
             if (useGlobalTable)
             {
-                frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(configuration, mode, strategy, image);
+                firstFrameQuantizer.BuildPalette(strategy, image);
-                quantized = frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, image.Bounds);
             }
             else
             {
-                frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(configuration, mode, strategy, encodingFrame);
+                firstFrameQuantizer.BuildPalette(strategy, encodingFrame);
-                quantized = frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, image.Bounds);
             }
 
-            clonedFrame?.Dispose();
+            quantized = firstFrameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, encodingFrame.Bounds);
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            quantized = this.QuantizeFrameAndUpdateMetadata(
+                encodingFrame,
+                globalQuantizer,
+                default,
+                encodingFrame.Bounds,
+                frameMetadata,
+                true,
+                false,
+                frameMetadata.HasTransparency ? frameMetadata.TransparencyIndex : -1,
+                Color.Transparent);
         }
 
         // Write the header.
@@ -181,6 +180,7 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
             frameMetadata.TransparencyIndex = ClampIndex(derivedTransparencyIndex);
         }
 
+        // TODO: We should be checking the metadata here also I think?
         if (!TryGetBackgroundIndex(quantized, this.backgroundColor, out byte backgroundIndex))
         {
             backgroundIndex = derivedTransparencyIndex >= 0
@@ -216,13 +216,18 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
             // Capture the global palette for reuse on subsequent frames and cleanup the quantized frame.
             TPixel[] globalPalette = image.Frames.Count == 1 ? [] : quantized.Palette.ToArray();
 
-            this.EncodeAdditionalFrames(
+            if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
-                stream,
+            {
-                image,
+                using PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalFrameQuantizer = new(this.configuration, globalQuantizer.Options, quantized.Palette.ToArray());
-                globalPalette,
+                this.EncodeAdditionalFrames(
-                derivedTransparencyIndex,
+                    stream,
-                frameMetadata.DisposalMode,
+                    image,
-                cancellationToken);
+                    globalQuantizer,
+                    globalFrameQuantizer,
+                    derivedTransparencyIndex,
+                    frameMetadata.DisposalMode,
+                    cancellationToken);
+            }
         }
         finally
         {
@@ -248,69 +253,43 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
     private void EncodeAdditionalFrames<TPixel>(
         Stream stream,
         Image<TPixel> image,
-        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> globalPalette,
+        IQuantizer globalQuantizer,
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalFrameQuantizer,
         int globalTransparencyIndex,
         FrameDisposalMode previousDisposalMode,
         CancellationToken cancellationToken)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        if (image.Frames.Count == 1)
-        {
-            return;
-        }
-
-        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> paletteQuantizer = default;
-        bool hasPaletteQuantizer = false;
-
         // Store the first frame as a reference for de-duplication comparison.
         ImageFrame<TPixel> previousFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
 
         // This frame is reused to store de-duplicated pixel buffers.
         using ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = new(previousFrame.Configuration, previousFrame.Size);
 
-        try
+        for (int i = 1; i < image.Frames.Count; i++)
         {
-            for (int i = 1; i < image.Frames.Count; i++)
+            cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
-            {
-                cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
 
-                // Gather the metadata for this frame.
+            // Gather the metadata for this frame.
-                ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame = image.Frames[i];
+            ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame = image.Frames[i];
-                ImageFrame<TPixel>? nextFrame = i < image.Frames.Count - 1 ? image.Frames[i + 1] : null;
+            ImageFrame<TPixel>? nextFrame = i < image.Frames.Count - 1 ? image.Frames[i + 1] : null;
-                GifFrameMetadata gifMetadata = GetGifFrameMetadata(currentFrame, globalTransparencyIndex);
+            GifFrameMetadata gifMetadata = GetGifFrameMetadata(currentFrame, globalTransparencyIndex);
-                bool useLocal = this.colorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local || (gifMetadata.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local);
+            bool useLocal = this.colorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local || (gifMetadata.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Local);
 
-                if (!useLocal && !hasPaletteQuantizer && i > 0)
+            this.EncodeAdditionalFrame(
-                {
+                stream,
-                    // The palette quantizer can reuse the same global pixel map across multiple frames since the palette is unchanging.
+                previousFrame,
-                    // This allows a reduction of memory usage across multi-frame gifs using a global palette
+                currentFrame,
-                    // and also allows use to reuse the cache from previous runs.
+                nextFrame,
-                    int transparencyIndex = gifMetadata.HasTransparency ? gifMetadata.TransparencyIndex : -1;
+                encodingFrame,
-                    paletteQuantizer = new(this.configuration, this.quantizer!.Options, globalPalette, transparencyIndex);
+                globalQuantizer,
-                    hasPaletteQuantizer = true;
+                globalFrameQuantizer,
-                }
+                useLocal,
+                gifMetadata,
+                previousDisposalMode);
 
-                this.EncodeAdditionalFrame(
+            previousFrame = currentFrame;
-                    stream,
+            previousDisposalMode = gifMetadata.DisposalMode;
-                    previousFrame,
-                    currentFrame,
-                    nextFrame,
-                    encodingFrame,
-                    useLocal,
-                    gifMetadata,
-                    paletteQuantizer,
-                    previousDisposalMode);
-
-                previousFrame = currentFrame;
-                previousDisposalMode = gifMetadata.DisposalMode;
-            }
-        }
-        finally
-        {
-            if (hasPaletteQuantizer)
-            {
-                paletteQuantizer.Dispose();
-            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -346,9 +325,10 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame,
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? nextFrame,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame,
+        IQuantizer globalQuantizer,
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalFrameQuantizer,
         bool useLocal,
         GifFrameMetadata metadata,
-        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalPaletteQuantizer,
         FrameDisposalMode previousDisposalMode)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
@@ -375,19 +355,16 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 background,
                 true);
 
-        if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.transparentColorMode))
+        using IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> quantized = this.QuantizeFrameAndUpdateMetadata(
-        {
-            EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(encodingFrame, background);
-        }
-
-        using IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> quantized = this.QuantizeAdditionalFrameAndUpdateMetadata(
                 encodingFrame,
+                globalQuantizer,
+                globalFrameQuantizer,
                 bounds,
                 metadata,
                 useLocal,
-                globalPaletteQuantizer,
                 difference,
-                transparencyIndex);
+                transparencyIndex,
+                background);
 
         this.WriteGraphicalControlExtension(metadata, stream);
 
@@ -403,14 +380,16 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         this.WriteImageData(indices, stream, quantized.Palette.Length, metadata.TransparencyIndex);
     }
 
-    private IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> QuantizeAdditionalFrameAndUpdateMetadata<TPixel>(
+    private IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> QuantizeFrameAndUpdateMetadata<TPixel>(
         ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame,
+        IQuantizer globalQuantizer,
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalFrameQuantizer,
         Rectangle bounds,
         GifFrameMetadata metadata,
         bool useLocal,
-        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> globalPaletteQuantizer,
         bool hasDuplicates,
-        int transparencyIndex)
+        int transparencyIndex,
+        Color transparentColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> quantized;
@@ -434,15 +413,19 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                         transparencyIndex = palette.Length;
                         metadata.TransparencyIndex = ClampIndex(transparencyIndex);
 
-                        PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex);
+                        QuantizerOptions options = globalQuantizer.Options.DeepClone(o =>
-                        using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
+                        {
+                            o.MaxColors = palette.Length;
+                            o.Dither = null;
+                        });
+                        PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, options, transparencyIndex, transparentColor);
+                        using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration);
                         quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
                     }
                     else
                     {
                         // We must quantize the frame to generate a local color table.
-                        IQuantizer quantizer = this.hasQuantizer ? this.quantizer! : KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                        using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = globalQuantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration);
-                        using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
                         quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
 
                         // The transparency index derived by the quantizer will differ from the index
@@ -454,7 +437,12 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
                 else
                 {
                     // Just use the local palette.
-                    PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, new() { Dither = null }, transparencyIndex);
+                    QuantizerOptions paletteOptions = globalQuantizer.Options.DeepClone(o =>
+                    {
+                        o.MaxColors = palette.Length;
+                        o.Dither = null;
+                    });
+                    PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(palette, paletteOptions, transparencyIndex, transparentColor);
                     using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
                     quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
                 }
@@ -462,8 +450,7 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
             else
             {
                 // We must quantize the frame to generate a local color table.
-                IQuantizer quantizer = this.hasQuantizer ? this.quantizer! : KnownQuantizers.Octree;
+                using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = globalQuantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration);
-                using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(this.configuration, quantizer.Options);
                 quantized = frameQuantizer.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
 
                 // The transparency index derived by the quantizer might differ from the index
@@ -486,18 +473,19 @@ internal sealed class GifEncoderCore
         else
         {
             // Quantize the image using the global palette.
-            // Individual frames, though using the shared palette, can use a different transparent index to represent transparency.
+            // Individual frames, though using the shared palette, can use a different transparent index
+            // to represent transparency.
 
             // A difference was captured but the metadata does not have transparency.
             if (hasDuplicates && !metadata.HasTransparency)
             {
                 metadata.HasTransparency = true;
-                transparencyIndex = globalPaletteQuantizer.Palette.Length;
+                transparencyIndex = globalFrameQuantizer.Palette.Length;
                 metadata.TransparencyIndex = ClampIndex(transparencyIndex);
             }
 
-            globalPaletteQuantizer.SetTransparentIndex(transparencyIndex);
+            globalFrameQuantizer.SetTransparencyIndex(transparencyIndex, transparentColor.ToPixel<TPixel>());
-            quantized = globalPaletteQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
+            quantized = globalFrameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(encodingFrame, bounds);
         }
 
         return quantized;

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifFrameMetadata.cs

@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 // Copyright (c) Six Labors.
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
-using System.Numerics;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
 
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Gif;
@@ -77,34 +76,12 @@ public class GifFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<GifFrameMetadata>
 
     /// <inheritdoc />
     public static GifFrameMetadata FromFormatConnectingFrameMetadata(FormatConnectingFrameMetadata metadata)
-    {
+        => new()
-        int index = -1;
-        const float background = 1f;
-        if (metadata.ColorTable.HasValue)
         {
-            ReadOnlySpan<Color> colorTable = metadata.ColorTable.Value.Span;
-            for (int i = 0; i < colorTable.Length; i++)
-            {
-                Vector4 vector = colorTable[i].ToScaledVector4();
-                if (vector.W < background)
-                {
-                    index = i;
-                }
-            }
-        }
-
-        bool hasTransparency = index >= 0;
-
-        return new()
-        {
-            LocalColorTable = metadata.ColorTable,
             ColorTableMode = metadata.ColorTableMode,
             FrameDelay = (int)Math.Round(metadata.Duration.TotalMilliseconds / 10),
             DisposalMode = metadata.DisposalMode,
-            HasTransparency = hasTransparency,
-            TransparencyIndex = hasTransparency ? unchecked((byte)index) : byte.MinValue,
         };
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc />
     public FormatConnectingFrameMetadata ToFormatConnectingFrameMetadata()
@@ -118,7 +95,6 @@ public class GifFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<GifFrameMetadata>
 
         return new()
         {
-            ColorTable = this.LocalColorTable,
             ColorTableMode = this.ColorTableMode,
             Duration = TimeSpan.FromMilliseconds(this.FrameDelay * 10),
             DisposalMode = this.DisposalMode,
@@ -129,8 +105,7 @@ public class GifFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<GifFrameMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterFrameApply<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
+        => this.LocalColorTable = null;
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Gif/GifMetadata.cs

@@ -71,37 +71,19 @@ public class GifMetadata : IFormatMetadata<GifMetadata>
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public static GifMetadata FromFormatConnectingMetadata(FormatConnectingMetadata metadata)
-    {
+        => new()
-        int index = 0;
-        Color background = metadata.BackgroundColor;
-        if (metadata.ColorTable.HasValue)
         {
-            ReadOnlySpan<Color> colorTable = metadata.ColorTable.Value.Span;
+            // Do not copy the color table or bit depth.
-            for (int i = 0; i < colorTable.Length; i++)
+            // This will lead to a mismatch when the image is comprised of frames
-            {
+            // extracted individually from a multi-frame image.
-                if (background != colorTable[i])
-                {
-                    continue;
-                }
-
-                index = i;
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-
-        return new()
-        {
-            GlobalColorTable = metadata.ColorTable,
             ColorTableMode = metadata.ColorTableMode,
             RepeatCount = metadata.RepeatCount,
-            BackgroundColorIndex = (byte)Numerics.Clamp(index, 0, 255),
         };
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public PixelTypeInfo GetPixelTypeInfo()
     {
-        int bpp = this.GlobalColorTable.HasValue
+        int bpp = this.ColorTableMode == FrameColorTableMode.Global && this.GlobalColorTable.HasValue
             ? Numerics.Clamp(ColorNumerics.GetBitsNeededForColorDepth(this.GlobalColorTable.Value.Length), 1, 8)
             : 8;
 
@@ -114,27 +96,18 @@ public class GifMetadata : IFormatMetadata<GifMetadata>
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public FormatConnectingMetadata ToFormatConnectingMetadata()
-    {
+        => new()
-        Color color = this.GlobalColorTable.HasValue && this.GlobalColorTable.Value.Span.Length > this.BackgroundColorIndex
-            ? this.GlobalColorTable.Value.Span[this.BackgroundColorIndex]
-            : Color.Transparent;
-
-        return new()
         {
             AnimateRootFrame = true,
-            BackgroundColor = color,
-            ColorTable = this.GlobalColorTable,
             ColorTableMode = this.ColorTableMode,
             PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo(),
             RepeatCount = this.RepeatCount,
         };
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
+        => this.GlobalColorTable = null;
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();

src/ImageSharp/Formats/IAnimatedImageEncoder.cs

@@ -14,17 +14,17 @@ public interface IAnimatedImageEncoder
     /// as well as the transparent pixels of the first frame.
     /// The background color is also used when a frame disposal mode is <see cref="FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground"/>.
     /// </summary>
-    Color? BackgroundColor { get; }
+    public Color? BackgroundColor { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the number of times any animation is repeated in supported encoders.
     /// </summary>
-    ushort? RepeatCount { get; }
+    public ushort? RepeatCount { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets a value indicating whether the root frame is shown as part of the animated sequence in supported encoders.
     /// </summary>
-    bool? AnimateRootFrame { get; }
+    public bool? AnimateRootFrame { get; }
 }
 
 /// <summary>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatFrameMetadata.cs

@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ public interface IFormatFrameMetadata : IDeepCloneable
     /// Converts the metadata to a <see cref="FormatConnectingFrameMetadata"/> instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="FormatConnectingFrameMetadata"/>.</returns>
-    FormatConnectingFrameMetadata ToFormatConnectingFrameMetadata();
+    public FormatConnectingFrameMetadata ToFormatConnectingFrameMetadata();
 
     /// <summary>
     /// This method is called after a process has been applied to the image frame.
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ public interface IFormatFrameMetadata : IDeepCloneable
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="source">The source image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="destination">The destination image frame.</param>
-    void AfterFrameApply<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
+    public void AfterFrameApply<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>;
 }
 
@@ -39,6 +39,6 @@ public interface IFormatFrameMetadata<TSelf> : IFormatFrameMetadata, IDeepClonea
     /// <param name="metadata">The <see cref="FormatConnectingFrameMetadata"/>.</param>
     /// <returns>The <typeparamref name="TSelf"/>.</returns>
 #pragma warning disable CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
-    static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingFrameMetadata(FormatConnectingFrameMetadata metadata);
+    public static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingFrameMetadata(FormatConnectingFrameMetadata metadata);
 #pragma warning restore CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
 }

src/ImageSharp/Formats/IFormatMetadata.cs

@@ -14,20 +14,20 @@ public interface IFormatMetadata : IDeepCloneable
     /// Converts the metadata to a <see cref="PixelTypeInfo"/> instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The pixel type info.</returns>
-    PixelTypeInfo GetPixelTypeInfo();
+    public PixelTypeInfo GetPixelTypeInfo();
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Converts the metadata to a <see cref="FormatConnectingMetadata"/> instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="FormatConnectingMetadata"/>.</returns>
-    FormatConnectingMetadata ToFormatConnectingMetadata();
+    public FormatConnectingMetadata ToFormatConnectingMetadata();
 
     /// <summary>
     /// This method is called after a process has been applied to the image.
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="destination">The destination image .</param>
-    void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
+    public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>;
 }
 
@@ -44,6 +44,6 @@ public interface IFormatMetadata<TSelf> : IFormatMetadata, IDeepCloneable<TSelf>
     /// <param name="metadata">The <see cref="FormatConnectingMetadata"/>.</param>
     /// <returns>The <typeparamref name="TSelf"/>.</returns>
 #pragma warning disable CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
-    static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingMetadata(FormatConnectingMetadata metadata);
+    public static abstract TSelf FromFormatConnectingMetadata(FormatConnectingMetadata metadata);
 #pragma warning restore CA1000 // Do not declare static members on generic types
 }

src/ImageSharp/Formats/IQuantizingImageEncoder.cs

@@ -13,12 +13,12 @@ public interface IQuantizingImageEncoder
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the quantizer used to generate the color palette.
     /// </summary>
-    IQuantizer? Quantizer { get; }
+    public IQuantizer? Quantizer { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the <see cref="IPixelSamplingStrategy"/> used for quantization when building color palettes.
     /// </summary>
-    IPixelSamplingStrategy PixelSamplingStrategy { get; }
+    public IPixelSamplingStrategy PixelSamplingStrategy { get; }
 }
 
 /// <summary>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/ISpecializedDecoderOptions.cs

@@ -11,5 +11,5 @@ public interface ISpecializedDecoderOptions
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the general decoder options.
     /// </summary>
-    DecoderOptions GeneralOptions { get; init; }
+    public DecoderOptions GeneralOptions { get; init; }
 }

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoFrameMetadata.cs

@@ -96,8 +96,7 @@ public class IcoFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<IcoFrameMetadata>
             BmpBitsPerPixel = bbpp,
             Compression = compression,
             EncodingWidth = ClampEncodingDimension(metadata.EncodingWidth),
-            EncodingHeight = ClampEncodingDimension(metadata.EncodingHeight),
+            EncodingHeight = ClampEncodingDimension(metadata.EncodingHeight)
-            ColorTable = compression == IconFrameCompression.Bmp ? metadata.ColorTable : null
         };
     }
 
@@ -106,7 +105,6 @@ public class IcoFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<IcoFrameMetadata>
         => new()
         {
             PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo(),
-            ColorTable = this.ColorTable,
             EncodingWidth = this.EncodingWidth,
             EncodingHeight = this.EncodingHeight
         };
@@ -119,6 +117,7 @@ public class IcoFrameMetadata : IFormatFrameMetadata<IcoFrameMetadata>
         float ratioY = destination.Height / (float)source.Height;
         this.EncodingWidth = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingWidth, destination.Width, ratioX);
         this.EncodingHeight = ScaleEncodingDimension(this.EncodingHeight, destination.Height, ratioY);
+        this.ColorTable = null;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Ico/IcoMetadata.cs

@@ -71,8 +71,7 @@ public class IcoMetadata : IFormatMetadata<IcoMetadata>
         return new IcoMetadata
         {
             BmpBitsPerPixel = bbpp,
-            Compression = compression,
+            Compression = compression
-            ColorTable = compression == IconFrameCompression.Bmp ? metadata.ColorTable : null
         };
     }
 
@@ -145,15 +144,13 @@ public class IcoMetadata : IFormatMetadata<IcoMetadata>
             EncodingType = this.Compression == IconFrameCompression.Bmp && this.BmpBitsPerPixel <= BmpBitsPerPixel.Bit8
                 ? EncodingType.Lossy
                 : EncodingType.Lossless,
-            PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo(),
+            PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo()
-            ColorTable = this.ColorTable
         };
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Icon/IconEncoderCore.cs

@@ -120,17 +120,17 @@ internal abstract class IconEncoderCore
         this.entries = this.iconFileType switch
         {
             IconFileType.ICO =>
-            image.Frames.Select(i =>
+            [.. image.Frames.Select(i =>
             {
                 IcoFrameMetadata metadata = i.Metadata.GetIcoMetadata();
                 return new EncodingFrameMetadata(metadata.Compression, metadata.BmpBitsPerPixel, metadata.ColorTable, metadata.ToIconDirEntry(i.Size));
-            }).ToArray(),
+            })],
             IconFileType.CUR =>
-            image.Frames.Select(i =>
+            [.. image.Frames.Select(i =>
             {
                 CurFrameMetadata metadata = i.Metadata.GetCurMetadata();
                 return new EncodingFrameMetadata(metadata.Compression, metadata.BmpBitsPerPixel, metadata.ColorTable, metadata.ToIconDirEntry(i.Size));
-            }).ToArray(),
+            })],
             _ => throw new NotSupportedException(),
         };
     }
@@ -149,9 +149,15 @@ internal abstract class IconEncoderCore
 
         if (metadata.ColorTable is null)
         {
+            int count = metadata.Entry.ColorCount;
+            if (count == 0)
+            {
+                count = 256;
+            }
+
             return new WuQuantizer(new()
             {
-                MaxColors = metadata.Entry.ColorCount
+                MaxColors = count
             });
         }
 

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngDecoderCore.cs

@@ -1086,7 +1086,7 @@ internal sealed class PngDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             {
                 PixelBlender<TPixel> blender =
                     PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.GetPixelBlender(PixelColorBlendingMode.Normal, PixelAlphaCompositionMode.SrcOver);
-                blender.Blend<TPixel>(this.configuration, destination, destination, rowSpan, 1f);
+                blender.Blend<TPixel>(this.configuration, destination, destination, rowSpan, 1F);
             }
         }
         finally
@@ -1208,7 +1208,7 @@ internal sealed class PngDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             {
                 PixelBlender<TPixel> blender =
                     PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.GetPixelBlender(PixelColorBlendingMode.Normal, PixelAlphaCompositionMode.SrcOver);
-                blender.Blend<TPixel>(this.configuration, destination, destination, rowSpan, 1f);
+                blender.Blend<TPixel>(this.configuration, destination, destination, rowSpan, 1F);
             }
         }
         finally
@@ -1866,6 +1866,9 @@ internal sealed class PngDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             return false;
         }
 
+        // Capture the current position so we can revert back to it if we fail to read a valid chunk.
+        long position = this.currentStream.Position;
+
         if (!this.TryReadChunkLength(buffer, out int length))
         {
             // IEND
@@ -1884,7 +1887,48 @@ internal sealed class PngDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
             }
         }
 
-        PngChunkType type = this.ReadChunkType(buffer);
+        PngChunkType type;
+
+        // Loop until we get a chunk type that is valid.
+        while (true)
+        {
+            type = this.ReadChunkType(buffer);
+            if (!IsValidChunkType(type))
+            {
+                // The chunk type is invalid.
+                // Revert back to the next byte past the previous position and try again.
+                this.currentStream.Position = ++position;
+
+                // If we are now at the end of the stream, we're done.
+                if (this.currentStream.Position >= this.currentStream.Length)
+                {
+                    chunk = default;
+                    return false;
+                }
+
+                // Read the next chunk’s length.
+                if (!this.TryReadChunkLength(buffer, out length))
+                {
+                    chunk = default;
+                    return false;
+                }
+
+                while (length < 0)
+                {
+                    if (!this.TryReadChunkLength(buffer, out length))
+                    {
+                        chunk = default;
+                        return false;
+                    }
+                }
+
+                // Continue to try reading the next chunk.
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // We have a valid chunk type.
+            break;
+        }
 
         // If we're reading color metadata only we're only interested in the IHDR and tRNS chunks.
         // We can skip most other chunk data in the stream for better performance.
@@ -1901,7 +1945,7 @@ internal sealed class PngDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
 
         // A chunk might report a length that exceeds the length of the stream.
         // Take the minimum of the two values to ensure we don't read past the end of the stream.
-        long position = this.currentStream.Position;
+        position = this.currentStream.Position;
         chunk = new PngChunk(
             length: (int)Math.Min(length, this.currentStream.Length - position),
             type: type,
@@ -1919,6 +1963,32 @@ internal sealed class PngDecoderCore : ImageDecoderCore
         return true;
     }
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Determines whether the 4-byte chunk type is valid (all ASCII letters).
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="type">The chunk type.</param>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    private static bool IsValidChunkType(PngChunkType type)
+    {
+        uint value = (uint)type;
+        byte b0 = (byte)(value >> 24);
+        byte b1 = (byte)(value >> 16);
+        byte b2 = (byte)(value >> 8);
+        byte b3 = (byte)value;
+        return IsAsciiLetter(b0) && IsAsciiLetter(b1) && IsAsciiLetter(b2) && IsAsciiLetter(b3);
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Returns a value indicating whether the given byte is an ASCII letter.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="b">The byte to check.</param>
+    /// <returns>
+    /// <see langword="true"/> if the byte is an ASCII letter; otherwise, <see langword="false"/>.
+    /// </returns>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    private static bool IsAsciiLetter(byte b)
+        => (b >= (byte)'A' && b <= (byte)'Z') || (b >= (byte)'a' && b <= (byte)'z');
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Validates the png chunk.
     /// </summary>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoder.cs

@@ -1,8 +1,6 @@
 // Copyright (c) Six Labors.
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
-using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
-
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Png;
 
 /// <summary>
@@ -10,16 +8,6 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Png;
 /// </summary>
 public class PngEncoder : QuantizingAnimatedImageEncoder
 {
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PngEncoder"/> class.
-    /// </summary>
-    public PngEncoder()
-
-        // Hack. TODO: Investigate means to fix/optimize the Wu quantizer.
-        // The Wu quantizer does not handle the default sampling strategy well for some larger images.
-        // It's expensive and the results are not better than the extensive strategy.
-        => this.PixelSamplingStrategy = new ExtensivePixelSamplingStrategy();
-
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the number of bits per sample or per palette index (not per pixel).
     /// Not all values are allowed for all <see cref="ColorType" /> values.
@@ -53,11 +41,6 @@ public class PngEncoder : QuantizingAnimatedImageEncoder
     /// <value>The gamma value of the image.</value>
     public float? Gamma { get; init; }
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Gets the transparency threshold.
-    /// </summary>
-    public byte Threshold { get; init; } = byte.MaxValue;
-
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets a value indicating whether this instance should write an Adam7 interlaced image.
     /// </summary>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngEncoderCore.cs

@@ -3,8 +3,8 @@
 
 using System.Buffers;
 using System.Buffers.Binary;
+using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
 using System.IO.Hashing;
-using System.Numerics;
 using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
 using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
 using System.Runtime.Intrinsics;
@@ -119,18 +119,13 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// </summary>
     private IQuantizer? quantizer;
 
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Any explicit quantized transparent index provided by the background color.
-    /// </summary>
-    private int derivedTransparencyIndex = -1;
-
     /// <summary>
     /// The default background color of the canvas when animating.
     /// This color may be used to fill the unused space on the canvas around the frames,
     /// as well as the transparent pixels of the first frame.
     /// The background color is also used when a frame disposal mode is <see cref="FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground"/>.
     /// </summary>
-    private readonly Color? backgroundColor;
+    private Color? backgroundColor;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// The number of times any animation is repeated.
@@ -158,7 +153,6 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
         this.memoryAllocator = configuration.MemoryAllocator;
         this.encoder = encoder;
         this.quantizer = encoder.Quantizer;
-        this.backgroundColor = encoder.BackgroundColor;
         this.repeatCount = encoder.RepeatCount;
         this.animateRootFrame = encoder.AnimateRootFrame;
     }
@@ -187,74 +181,95 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
 
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? clonedFrame = null;
         ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
-        int currentFrameIndex = 0;
+        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = null;
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>? paletteQuantizer = null;
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
 
-        bool clearTransparency = EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.encoder.TransparentColorMode);
+        try
-        if (clearTransparency)
         {
-            currentFrame = clonedFrame = currentFrame.Clone();
+            int currentFrameIndex = 0;
-            EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(currentFrame, Color.Transparent);
-        }
 
-        // Do not move this. We require an accurate bit depth for the header chunk.
+            bool clearTransparency = EncodingUtilities.ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.encoder.TransparentColorMode);
-        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = this.CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth(
-            pngMetadata,
-            currentFrame,
-            currentFrame.Bounds,
-            null);
-
-        this.WriteHeaderChunk(stream);
-        this.WriteGammaChunk(stream);
-        this.WriteCicpChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteColorProfileChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WritePaletteChunk(stream, quantized);
-        this.WriteTransparencyChunk(stream, pngMetadata);
-        this.WritePhysicalChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteExifChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteXmpChunk(stream, metadata);
-        this.WriteTextChunks(stream, pngMetadata);
 
-        if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
+            // No need to clone when quantizing. The quantizer will do it for us.
-        {
+            // TODO: We should really try to avoid the clone entirely.
-            this.WriteAnimationControlChunk(
+            if (clearTransparency && this.colorType is not PngColorType.Palette)
-                stream,
+            {
-                (uint)(image.Frames.Count - (pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame ? 0 : 1)),
+                currentFrame = clonedFrame = currentFrame.Clone();
-                this.repeatCount ?? pngMetadata.RepeatCount);
+                currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
-        }
+                EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(this.configuration, in currentFrameRegion);
+            }
 
-        // If the first frame isn't animated, write it as usual and skip it when writing animated frames
+            // Do not move this. We require an accurate bit depth for the header chunk.
-        bool userAnimateRootFrame = this.animateRootFrame == true;
+            quantized = this.CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth(
-        if ((!userAnimateRootFrame && !pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame) || image.Frames.Count == 1)
+                pngMetadata,
-        {
+                image,
-            cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
+                currentFrame,
-            FrameControl frameControl = new((uint)this.width, (uint)this.height);
+                currentFrame.Bounds,
-            this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(), quantized, stream, false);
+                null);
-            currentFrameIndex++;
+
-        }
+            this.WriteHeaderChunk(stream);
+            this.WriteGammaChunk(stream);
+            this.WriteCicpChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteColorProfileChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WritePaletteChunk(stream, quantized);
+            this.WriteTransparencyChunk(stream, pngMetadata);
+            this.WritePhysicalChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteExifChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteXmpChunk(stream, metadata);
+            this.WriteTextChunks(stream, pngMetadata);
+
+            if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
+            {
+                this.WriteAnimationControlChunk(
+                    stream,
+                    (uint)(image.Frames.Count - (pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame ? 0 : 1)),
+                    this.repeatCount ?? pngMetadata.RepeatCount);
+            }
+
+            // If the first frame isn't animated, write it as usual and skip it when writing animated frames
+            bool userAnimateRootFrame = this.animateRootFrame == true;
+            if ((!userAnimateRootFrame && !pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame) || image.Frames.Count == 1)
+            {
+                cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
+                FrameControl frameControl = new((uint)this.width, (uint)this.height);
+                this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in currentFrameRegion, quantized, stream, false);
+                currentFrameIndex++;
+            }
 
-        try
-        {
             if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
             {
                 // Write the first animated frame.
                 currentFrame = image.Frames[currentFrameIndex];
+                currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
+
                 PngFrameMetadata frameMetadata = currentFrame.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
                 FrameDisposalMode previousDisposal = frameMetadata.DisposalMode;
                 FrameControl frameControl = this.WriteFrameControlChunk(stream, frameMetadata, currentFrame.Bounds, 0);
                 uint sequenceNumber = 1;
                 if (pngMetadata.AnimateRootFrame)
                 {
-                    this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(), quantized, stream, false);
+                    this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in currentFrameRegion, quantized, stream, false);
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(), quantized, stream, true);
+                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in currentFrameRegion, quantized, stream, true);
                 }
 
                 currentFrameIndex++;
 
                 // Capture the global palette for reuse on subsequent frames.
-                ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel>? previousPalette = quantized?.Palette.ToArray();
+                ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> previousPalette = quantized?.Palette.ToArray();
+
+                if (!previousPalette.IsEmpty)
+                {
+                    // Use the previously derived global palette and a shared quantizer to
+                    // quantize the subsequent frames. This allows us to cache the color matching resolution.
+                    paletteQuantizer ??= new(
+                        this.configuration,
+                        this.quantizer!.Options,
+                        previousPalette);
+                }
 
                 // Write following frames.
                 ImageFrame<TPixel> previousFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
@@ -267,13 +282,26 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
                     cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
 
                     ImageFrame<TPixel>? prev = previousDisposal == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground ? null : previousFrame;
+
                     currentFrame = image.Frames[currentFrameIndex];
+                    currentFrameRegion = currentFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion();
+
                     ImageFrame<TPixel>? nextFrame = currentFrameIndex < image.Frames.Count - 1 ? image.Frames[currentFrameIndex + 1] : null;
 
                     frameMetadata = currentFrame.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
-                    bool blend = frameMetadata.BlendMode == FrameBlendMode.Over;
+
+                    // Determine whether to blend the current frame over the existing canvas.
+                    // Blending is applied only when the blend method is 'Over' (source-over blending)
+                    // and when the frame's disposal method is not 'RestoreToPrevious', which indicates that
+                    // the frame should not permanently alter the canvas.
+                    bool blend = frameMetadata.BlendMode == FrameBlendMode.Over
+                                 && frameMetadata.DisposalMode != FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToPrevious;
+
+                    // Establish the background color for the current frame.
+                    // If the disposal method is 'RestoreToBackground', use the predefined background color;
+                    // otherwise, use transparent, as no explicit background restoration is needed.
                     Color background = frameMetadata.DisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
-                        ? this.backgroundColor ?? Color.Transparent
+                        ? this.backgroundColor.Value
                         : Color.Transparent;
 
                     (bool difference, Rectangle bounds) =
@@ -286,9 +314,9 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
                             background,
                             blend);
 
-                    if (clearTransparency)
+                    if (clearTransparency && this.colorType is not PngColorType.Palette)
                     {
-                        EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(encodingFrame, background);
+                        EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(encodingFrame);
                     }
 
                     // Each frame control sequence number must be incremented by the number of frame data chunks that follow.
@@ -296,8 +324,20 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
 
                     // Dispose of previous quantized frame and reassign.
                     quantized?.Dispose();
-                    quantized = this.CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth(pngMetadata, encodingFrame, bounds, previousPalette);
+
-                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(frameControl, encodingFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(bounds), quantized, stream, true) + 1;
+                    quantized = this.CreateQuantizedFrame(
+                        this.encoder,
+                        this.colorType,
+                        this.bitDepth,
+                        pngMetadata,
+                        image,
+                        encodingFrame,
+                        bounds,
+                        paletteQuantizer,
+                        default);
+
+                    Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> encodingFrameRegion = encodingFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(bounds);
+                    sequenceNumber += this.WriteDataChunks(in frameControl, in encodingFrameRegion, quantized, stream, true) + 1;
 
                     previousFrame = currentFrame;
                     previousDisposal = frameMetadata.DisposalMode;
@@ -313,6 +353,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
             // Dispose of allocations from final frame.
             clonedFrame?.Dispose();
             quantized?.Dispose();
+            paletteQuantizer?.Dispose();
         }
     }
 
@@ -328,18 +369,35 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// </summary>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="metadata">The image metadata.</param>
-    /// <param name="frame">The frame to quantize.</param>
+    /// <param name="image">The image.</param>
+    /// <param name="frame">The current image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The area of interest within the frame.</param>
-    /// <param name="previousPalette">Any previously derived palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="paletteQuantizer">The quantizer containing any previously derived palette.</param>
     /// <returns>The quantized image.</returns>
     private IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? CreateQuantizedImageAndUpdateBitDepth<TPixel>(
         PngMetadata metadata,
+        Image<TPixel> image,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> frame,
         Rectangle bounds,
-        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel>? previousPalette)
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>? paletteQuantizer)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = this.CreateQuantizedFrame(this.encoder, this.colorType, this.bitDepth, metadata, frame, bounds, previousPalette);
+        PngFrameMetadata frameMetadata = frame.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
+        Color background = frameMetadata.DisposalMode == FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
+            ? this.backgroundColor ?? Color.Transparent
+            : Color.Transparent;
+
+        IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized = this.CreateQuantizedFrame(
+            this.encoder,
+            this.colorType,
+            this.bitDepth,
+            metadata,
+            image,
+            frame,
+            bounds,
+            paletteQuantizer,
+            background);
+
         this.bitDepth = CalculateBitDepth(this.colorType, this.bitDepth, quantized);
         return quantized;
     }
@@ -734,11 +792,6 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
             byte alpha = rgba.A;
 
             Unsafe.Add(ref colorTableRef, (uint)i) = rgba.Rgb;
-            if (alpha > this.encoder.Threshold)
-            {
-                alpha = byte.MaxValue;
-            }
-
             hasAlpha = hasAlpha || alpha < byte.MaxValue;
             Unsafe.Add(ref alphaTableRef, (uint)i) = alpha;
         }
@@ -1105,7 +1158,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="quantized">The quantized pixel data. Can be null.</param>
     /// <param name="stream">The stream.</param>
     /// <param name="isFrame">Is writing fdAT or IDAT.</param>
-    private uint WriteDataChunks<TPixel>(FrameControl frameControl, Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> frame, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, Stream stream, bool isFrame)
+    private uint WriteDataChunks<TPixel>(in FrameControl frameControl, in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> frame, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, Stream stream, bool isFrame)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         byte[] buffer;
@@ -1123,12 +1176,12 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
                     }
                     else
                     {
-                        this.EncodeAdam7Pixels(frame, deflateStream);
+                        this.EncodeAdam7Pixels(in frame, deflateStream);
                     }
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    this.EncodePixels(frame, quantized, deflateStream);
+                    this.EncodePixels(in frame, quantized, deflateStream);
                 }
             }
 
@@ -1196,7 +1249,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="pixels">The image frame pixel buffer.</param>
     /// <param name="quantized">The quantized pixels.</param>
     /// <param name="deflateStream">The deflate stream.</param>
-    private void EncodePixels<TPixel>(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
+    private void EncodePixels<TPixel>(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? quantized, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         int bytesPerScanline = this.CalculateScanlineLength(pixels.Width);
@@ -1210,7 +1263,8 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
         Span<byte> attempt = attemptBuffer.GetSpan();
         for (int y = 0; y < pixels.Height; y++)
         {
-            this.CollectAndFilterPixelRow(pixels.DangerousGetRowSpan(y), ref filter, ref attempt, quantized, y);
+            ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> rowSpan = pixels.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+            this.CollectAndFilterPixelRow(rowSpan, ref filter, ref attempt, quantized, y);
             deflateStream.Write(filter);
             this.SwapScanlineBuffers();
         }
@@ -1222,7 +1276,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="pixels">The image frame pixel buffer.</param>
     /// <param name="deflateStream">The deflate stream.</param>
-    private void EncodeAdam7Pixels<TPixel>(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
+    private void EncodeAdam7Pixels<TPixel>(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixels, ZlibDeflateStream deflateStream)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         for (int pass = 0; pass < 7; pass++)
@@ -1258,7 +1312,8 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
                 // Encode data
                 // Note: quantized parameter not used
                 // Note: row parameter not used
-                this.CollectAndFilterPixelRow<TPixel>(block, ref filter, ref attempt, null, -1);
+                ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> blockSpan = block;
+                this.CollectAndFilterPixelRow(blockSpan, ref filter, ref attempt, null, -1);
                 deflateStream.Write(filter);
 
                 this.SwapScanlineBuffers();
@@ -1432,6 +1487,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="pngMetadata">The PNG metadata.</param>
     /// <param name="use16Bit">if set to <c>true</c> [use16 bit].</param>
     /// <param name="bytesPerPixel">The bytes per pixel.</param>
+    [MemberNotNull(nameof(backgroundColor))]
     private void SanitizeAndSetEncoderOptions<TPixel>(
         PngEncoder encoder,
         PngMetadata pngMetadata,
@@ -1473,6 +1529,7 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
 
         this.interlaceMode = encoder.InterlaceMethod ?? pngMetadata.InterlaceMethod;
         this.chunkFilter = encoder.SkipMetadata ? PngChunkFilter.ExcludeAll : encoder.ChunkFilter ?? PngChunkFilter.None;
+        this.backgroundColor = encoder.BackgroundColor ?? pngMetadata.TransparentColor ?? Color.Transparent;
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -1483,17 +1540,21 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
     /// <param name="colorType">The color type.</param>
     /// <param name="bitDepth">The bits per component.</param>
     /// <param name="metadata">The image metadata.</param>
-    /// <param name="frame">The frame to quantize.</param>
+    /// <param name="image">The image.</param>
+    /// <param name="frame">The current image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The frame area of interest.</param>
-    /// <param name="previousPalette">Any previously derived palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="paletteQuantizer">The quantizer containing any previously derived palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="backgroundColor">The background color.</param>
     private IndexedImageFrame<TPixel>? CreateQuantizedFrame<TPixel>(
         QuantizingImageEncoder encoder,
         PngColorType colorType,
         byte bitDepth,
         PngMetadata metadata,
+        Image<TPixel> image,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> frame,
         Rectangle bounds,
-        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel>? previousPalette)
+        PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>? paletteQuantizer,
+        Color backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (colorType is not PngColorType.Palette)
@@ -1501,55 +1562,59 @@ internal sealed class PngEncoderCore : IDisposable
             return null;
         }
 
-        if (previousPalette is not null)
+        if (paletteQuantizer.HasValue)
         {
-            // Use the previously derived palette created by quantizing the root frame to quantize the current frame.
+            return paletteQuantizer.Value.QuantizeFrame(frame, bounds);
-            using PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> paletteQuantizer = new(
-                this.configuration,
-                this.quantizer!.Options,
-                previousPalette.Value,
-                this.derivedTransparencyIndex);
-            paletteQuantizer.BuildPalette(encoder.PixelSamplingStrategy, frame);
-            return paletteQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(frame, bounds);
         }
 
         // Use the metadata to determine what quantization depth to use if no quantizer has been set.
         if (this.quantizer is null)
         {
-            if (metadata.ColorTable is not null)
+            if (metadata.ColorTable?.Length > 0)
             {
                 // We can use the color data from the decoded metadata here.
                 // We avoid dithering by default to preserve the original colors.
-                ReadOnlySpan<Color> palette = metadata.ColorTable.Value.Span;
+                QuantizerOptions options = new() { Dither = null, TransparentColorMode = encoder.TransparentColorMode };
-
+                this.quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(metadata.ColorTable.Value, options);
-                // Certain operations perform alpha premultiplication, which can cause the color to change so we
-                // must search for the transparency index in the palette.
-                // Transparent pixels are much more likely to be found at the end of a palette.
-                int index = -1;
-                for (int i = palette.Length - 1; i >= 0; i--)
-                {
-                    Vector4 instance = palette[i].ToScaledVector4();
-                    if (instance.W == 0f)
-                    {
-                        index = i;
-                        break;
-                    }
-                }
-
-                this.derivedTransparencyIndex = index;
-
-                this.quantizer = new PaletteQuantizer(metadata.ColorTable.Value, new() { Dither = null }, this.derivedTransparencyIndex);
             }
             else
             {
-                this.quantizer = new WuQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { MaxColors = ColorNumerics.GetColorCountForBitDepth(bitDepth) });
+                // Don't use the default transparency threshold for quantization as PNG can handle multiple transparent colors.
+                // We choose a value that is close to zero so that edge cases causes by lower bit depths for the alpha channel are handled correctly.
+                QuantizerOptions options = new()
+                {
+                    TransparencyThreshold = 0,
+                    MaxColors = ColorNumerics.GetColorCountForBitDepth(bitDepth),
+                    TransparentColorMode = encoder.TransparentColorMode
+                };
+
+                this.quantizer = new WuQuantizer(options);
             }
         }
 
         // Create quantized frame returning the palette and set the bit depth.
         using IQuantizer<TPixel> frameQuantizer = this.quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(frame.Configuration);
 
-        frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(encoder.PixelSamplingStrategy, frame);
+        if (image.Frames.Count > 1)
+        {
+            // Encoding animated frames with a global palette requires a transparent pixel in the palette
+            // since we only encode the delta between frames. To ensure that we have a transparent pixel
+            // we create a fake frame with a containing only transparent pixels and add it to the palette.
+            using Buffer2D<TPixel> fake = image.Configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate2D<TPixel>(Math.Min(256, image.Width), Math.Min(256, image.Height));
+            TPixel backGroundPixel = backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>();
+            for (int i = 0; i < fake.Height; i++)
+            {
+                fake.DangerousGetRowSpan(i).Fill(backGroundPixel);
+            }
+
+            Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> fakeRegion = fake.GetRegion();
+            frameQuantizer.AddPaletteColors(in fakeRegion);
+        }
+
+        frameQuantizer.BuildPalette(
+            encoder.PixelSamplingStrategy,
+            image);
+
         return frameQuantizer.QuantizeFrame(frame, bounds);
     }
 

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Png/PngMetadata.cs

@@ -93,25 +93,6 @@ public class PngMetadata : IFormatMetadata<PngMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public static PngMetadata FromFormatConnectingMetadata(FormatConnectingMetadata metadata)
     {
-        // Should the conversion be from a format that uses a 24bit palette entries (gif)
-        // we need to clone and adjust the color table to allow for transparency.
-        Color[]? colorTable = metadata.ColorTable?.ToArray();
-        if (colorTable != null)
-        {
-            for (int i = 0; i < colorTable.Length; i++)
-            {
-                ref Color c = ref colorTable[i];
-                if (c != metadata.BackgroundColor)
-                {
-                    continue;
-                }
-
-                // Png treats background as fully empty
-                c = Color.Transparent;
-                break;
-            }
-        }
-
         PngColorType color;
         PixelColorType colorType = metadata.PixelTypeInfo.ColorType;
 
@@ -152,7 +133,6 @@ public class PngMetadata : IFormatMetadata<PngMetadata>
         {
             ColorType = color,
             BitDepth = bitDepth,
-            ColorTable = colorTable,
             RepeatCount = metadata.RepeatCount,
         };
     }
@@ -241,7 +221,6 @@ public class PngMetadata : IFormatMetadata<PngMetadata>
     public FormatConnectingMetadata ToFormatConnectingMetadata()
         => new()
         {
-            ColorTable = this.ColorTable,
             ColorTableMode = FrameColorTableMode.Global,
             PixelTypeInfo = this.GetPixelTypeInfo(),
             RepeatCount = (ushort)Numerics.Clamp(this.RepeatCount, 0, ushort.MaxValue),
@@ -250,8 +229,7 @@ public class PngMetadata : IFormatMetadata<PngMetadata>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public void AfterImageApply<TPixel>(Image<TPixel> destination)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-    {
+        => this.ColorTable = null;
-    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     IDeepCloneable IDeepCloneable.DeepClone() => this.DeepClone();

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Qoi/QoiEncoderCore.cs

@@ -90,10 +90,12 @@ internal class QoiEncoderCore
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? clonedFrame = null;
         try
         {
-            if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.encoder.TransparentColorMode))
+            // TODO: Try to avoid cloning the frame if possible.
+            // We should be cloning individual scanlines instead.
+            if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.encoder.TransparentColorMode))
             {
                 clonedFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame.Clone();
-                EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(clonedFrame, Color.Transparent);
+                EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(clonedFrame);
             }
 
             ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = clonedFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Tga/TgaEncoderCore.cs

@@ -110,10 +110,12 @@ internal sealed class TgaEncoderCore
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? clonedFrame = null;
         try
         {
-            if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.transparentColorMode))
+            // TODO: Try to avoid cloning the frame if possible.
+            // We should be cloning individual scanlines instead.
+            if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.transparentColorMode))
             {
                 clonedFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame.Clone();
-                EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(clonedFrame, Color.Transparent);
+                EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(clonedFrame);
             }
 
             ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = clonedFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Tiff/TiffEncoderCore.cs

@@ -146,10 +146,12 @@ internal sealed class TiffEncoderCore
             {
                 cancellationToken.ThrowIfCancellationRequested();
 
-                if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.transparentColorMode))
+                // TODO: Try to avoid cloning the frame if possible.
+                // We should be cloning individual scanlines instead.
+                if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(this.transparentColorMode))
                 {
                     clonedFrame = frame.Clone();
-                    EncodingUtilities.ClearTransparentPixels(clonedFrame, Color.Transparent);
+                    EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(clonedFrame);
                 }
 
                 ImageFrame<TPixel> encodingFrame = clonedFrame ?? frame;

src/ImageSharp/Formats/TransparentColorMode.cs

@@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats;
 
 /// <summary>
-/// Specifies how transparent pixels should be handled during encoding.
+/// Specifies how pixels with transparent alpha components should be handled during encoding and quantization.
 /// </summary>
 public enum TransparentColorMode
 {
@@ -18,5 +18,5 @@ public enum TransparentColorMode
     /// to fully transparent pixels (all components set to zero),
     /// which may improve compression.
     /// </summary>
-    Clear = 1,
+    Clear = 1
 }

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/BitReader/BitReaderBase.cs

@@ -32,7 +32,7 @@ internal abstract class BitReaderBase : IDisposable
     /// <param name="memoryAllocator">Used for allocating memory during reading data from the stream.</param>
     protected static IMemoryOwner<byte> ReadImageDataFromStream(Stream input, int bytesToRead, MemoryAllocator memoryAllocator)
     {
-        IMemoryOwner<byte> data = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(bytesToRead);
+        IMemoryOwner<byte> data = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(bytesToRead, AllocationOptions.Clean);
         Span<byte> dataSpan = data.Memory.Span;
         input.Read(dataSpan[..bytesToRead], 0, bytesToRead);
 

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/Lossy/Vp8Decoder.cs

@@ -67,14 +67,14 @@ internal class Vp8Decoder : IDisposable
         int extraY = extraRows * this.CacheYStride;
         int extraUv = extraRows / 2 * this.CacheUvStride;
         this.YuvBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((WebpConstants.Bps * 17) + (WebpConstants.Bps * 9) + extraY);
-        this.CacheY = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((16 * this.CacheYStride) + extraY);
+        this.CacheY = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((16 * this.CacheYStride) + extraY, AllocationOptions.Clean);
         int cacheUvSize = (16 * this.CacheUvStride) + extraUv;
         this.CacheU = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(cacheUvSize);
         this.CacheV = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>(cacheUvSize);
         this.TmpYBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width);
         this.TmpUBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width);
         this.TmpVBuffer = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)width);
-        this.Pixels = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)(width * height * 4));
+        this.Pixels = memoryAllocator.Allocate<byte>((int)(width * height * 4), AllocationOptions.Clean);
 
 #if DEBUG
         // Filling those buffers with 205, is only useful for debugging,

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpAnimationDecoder.cs

@@ -81,16 +81,29 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
     /// <param name="width">The width of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="height">The height of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="completeDataSize">The size of the image data in bytes.</param>
-    public Image<TPixel> Decode<TPixel>(BufferedReadStream stream, WebpFeatures features, uint width, uint height, uint completeDataSize)
+    public Image<TPixel> Decode<TPixel>(
+        BufferedReadStream stream,
+        WebpFeatures features,
+        uint width,
+        uint height,
+        uint completeDataSize)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         Image<TPixel>? image = null;
         ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame = null;
+        WebpFrameData? prevFrameData = null;
 
         this.metadata = new ImageMetadata();
         this.webpMetadata = this.metadata.GetWebpMetadata();
         this.webpMetadata.RepeatCount = features.AnimationLoopCount;
 
+        Color backgroundColor = this.backgroundColorHandling == BackgroundColorHandling.Ignore
+            ? Color.Transparent
+            : features.AnimationBackgroundColor!.Value;
+
+        this.webpMetadata.BackgroundColor = backgroundColor;
+        TPixel backgroundPixel = backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>();
+
         Span<byte> buffer = stackalloc byte[4];
         uint frameCount = 0;
         int remainingBytes = (int)completeDataSize;
@@ -101,10 +114,16 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
             switch (chunkType)
             {
                 case WebpChunkType.FrameData:
-                    Color backgroundColor = this.backgroundColorHandling == BackgroundColorHandling.Ignore
+
-                        ? Color.FromPixel(new Bgra32(0, 0, 0, 0))
+                    uint dataSize = this.ReadFrame(
-                        : features.AnimationBackgroundColor!.Value;
+                        stream,
-                    uint dataSize = this.ReadFrame(stream, ref image, ref previousFrame, width, height, backgroundColor);
+                        ref image,
+                        ref previousFrame,
+                        ref prevFrameData,
+                        width,
+                        height,
+                        backgroundPixel);
+
                     remainingBytes -= (int)dataSize;
                     break;
                 case WebpChunkType.Xmp:
@@ -132,10 +151,18 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
     /// <param name="stream">The stream, where the image should be decoded from. Cannot be null.</param>
     /// <param name="image">The image to decode the information to.</param>
     /// <param name="previousFrame">The previous frame.</param>
+    /// <param name="prevFrameData">The previous frame data.</param>
     /// <param name="width">The width of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="height">The height of the image.</param>
     /// <param name="backgroundColor">The default background color of the canvas in.</param>
-    private uint ReadFrame<TPixel>(BufferedReadStream stream, ref Image<TPixel>? image, ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame, uint width, uint height, Color backgroundColor)
+    private uint ReadFrame<TPixel>(
+        BufferedReadStream stream,
+        ref Image<TPixel>? image,
+        ref ImageFrame<TPixel>? previousFrame,
+        ref WebpFrameData? prevFrameData,
+        uint width,
+        uint height,
+        TPixel backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         WebpFrameData frameData = WebpFrameData.Parse(stream);
@@ -174,40 +201,51 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
                 break;
         }
 
-        ImageFrame<TPixel>? currentFrame = null;
+        ImageFrame<TPixel> currentFrame;
-        ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame;
         if (previousFrame is null)
         {
-            image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, (int)width, (int)height, backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>(), this.metadata);
+            image = new Image<TPixel>(this.configuration, (int)width, (int)height, backgroundColor, this.metadata);
-
-            SetFrameMetadata(image.Frames.RootFrame.Metadata, frameData);
 
-            imageFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
+            currentFrame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
+            SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata, frameData);
         }
         else
         {
-            currentFrame = image!.Frames.AddFrame(previousFrame); // This clones the frame and adds it the collection.
+            // If the frame is a key frame we do not need to clone the frame or clear it.
+            bool isKeyFrame = prevFrameData?.DisposalMethod is FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground
+                 && this.restoreArea == image!.Bounds;
 
-            SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata, frameData);
+            if (isKeyFrame)
+            {
+                currentFrame = image!.Frames.CreateFrame(backgroundColor);
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                // This clones the frame and adds it the collection.
+                currentFrame = image!.Frames.AddFrame(previousFrame);
+                if (prevFrameData?.DisposalMethod is FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
+                {
+                    this.RestoreToBackground(currentFrame, backgroundColor);
+                }
+            }
 
-            imageFrame = currentFrame;
+            SetFrameMetadata(currentFrame.Metadata, frameData);
         }
 
-        Rectangle regionRectangle = frameData.Bounds;
+        Rectangle interest = frameData.Bounds;
+        bool blend = previousFrame != null && frameData.BlendingMethod == FrameBlendMode.Over;
+        using Buffer2D<TPixel> pixelData = this.DecodeImageFrameData<TPixel>(frameData, webpInfo);
+        DrawDecodedImageFrameOnCanvas(pixelData, currentFrame, interest, blend);
+
+        webpInfo?.Dispose();
+        previousFrame = currentFrame;
+        prevFrameData = frameData;
 
         if (frameData.DisposalMethod is FrameDisposalMode.RestoreToBackground)
         {
-            this.RestoreToBackground(imageFrame, backgroundColor);
+            this.restoreArea = interest;
         }
 
-        using Buffer2D<TPixel> decodedImageFrame = this.DecodeImageFrameData<TPixel>(frameData, webpInfo);
-
-        bool blend = previousFrame != null && frameData.BlendingMethod == FrameBlendMode.Over;
-        DrawDecodedImageFrameOnCanvas(decodedImageFrame, imageFrame, regionRectangle, blend);
-
-        previousFrame = currentFrame ?? image.Frames.RootFrame;
-        this.restoreArea = regionRectangle;
-
         return (uint)(stream.Position - streamStartPosition);
     }
 
@@ -257,31 +295,26 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
 
         try
         {
-            Buffer2D<TPixel> pixelBufferDecoded = decodedFrame.PixelBuffer;
+            Buffer2D<TPixel> decodeBuffer = decodedFrame.PixelBuffer;
             if (webpInfo.IsLossless)
             {
-                WebpLosslessDecoder losslessDecoder =
+                WebpLosslessDecoder losslessDecoder = new(webpInfo.Vp8LBitReader, this.memoryAllocator, this.configuration);
-                    new(webpInfo.Vp8LBitReader, this.memoryAllocator, this.configuration);
+                losslessDecoder.Decode(decodeBuffer, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height);
-                losslessDecoder.Decode(pixelBufferDecoded, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height);
             }
             else
             {
                 WebpLossyDecoder lossyDecoder =
                     new(webpInfo.Vp8BitReader, this.memoryAllocator, this.configuration);
-                lossyDecoder.Decode(pixelBufferDecoded, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height, webpInfo, this.alphaData);
+                lossyDecoder.Decode(decodeBuffer, (int)webpInfo.Width, (int)webpInfo.Height, webpInfo, this.alphaData);
             }
 
-            return pixelBufferDecoded;
+            return decodeBuffer;
         }
         catch
         {
             decodedFrame?.Dispose();
             throw;
         }
-        finally
-        {
-            webpInfo.Dispose();
-        }
     }
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -335,7 +368,7 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="imageFrame">The image frame.</param>
     /// <param name="backgroundColor">Color of the background.</param>
-    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame, Color backgroundColor)
+    private void RestoreToBackground<TPixel>(ImageFrame<TPixel> imageFrame, TPixel backgroundColor)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         if (!this.restoreArea.HasValue)
@@ -345,8 +378,9 @@ internal class WebpAnimationDecoder : IDisposable
 
         Rectangle interest = Rectangle.Intersect(imageFrame.Bounds, this.restoreArea.Value);
         Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion = imageFrame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(interest);
-        TPixel backgroundPixel = backgroundColor.ToPixel<TPixel>();
+        pixelRegion.Fill(backgroundColor);
-        pixelRegion.Fill(backgroundPixel);
+
+        this.restoreArea = null;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>

src/ImageSharp/Formats/Webp/WebpCommonUtils.cs

@@ -18,7 +18,7 @@ internal static class WebpCommonUtils
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="row">The row to check.</param>
     /// <returns>Returns true if alpha has non-0xff values.</returns>
-    public static unsafe bool CheckNonOpaque(Span<Bgra32> row)
+    public static unsafe bool CheckNonOpaque(ReadOnlySpan<Bgra32> row)
     {
         if (Avx2.IsSupported)
         {

src/ImageSharp/IDeepCloneable.cs

@@ -1,4 +1,4 @@
-// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp;
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ public interface IDeepCloneable<out T>
     /// Creates a new <typeparamref name="T"/> that is a deep copy of the current instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The <typeparamref name="T"/>.</returns>
-    T DeepClone();
+    public T DeepClone();
 }
 
 /// <summary>
@@ -26,5 +26,5 @@ public interface IDeepCloneable
     /// Creates a new object that is a deep copy of the current instance.
     /// </summary>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="IDeepCloneable"/>.</returns>
-    IDeepCloneable DeepClone();
+    public IDeepCloneable DeepClone();
 }

src/ImageSharp/ImageSharp.csproj

@@ -51,6 +51,11 @@
   </ItemGroup>
 
   <ItemGroup>
+    <Compile Update="Common\InlineArray.cs">
+      <DesignTime>True</DesignTime>
+      <AutoGen>True</AutoGen>
+      <DependentUpon>InlineArray.tt</DependentUpon>
+    </Compile>
     <Compile Update="Formats\_Generated\ImageMetadataExtensions.cs">
       <DesignTime>True</DesignTime>
       <AutoGen>True</AutoGen>
@@ -154,6 +159,10 @@
   </ItemGroup>
 
   <ItemGroup>
+    <None Update="Common\InlineArray.tt">
+      <Generator>TextTemplatingFileGenerator</Generator>
+      <LastGenOutput>InlineArray.cs</LastGenOutput>
+    </None>
     <None Update="Formats\_Generated\ImageMetadataExtensions.tt">
       <LastGenOutput>ImageMetadataExtensions.cs</LastGenOutput>
       <Generator>TextTemplatingFileGenerator</Generator>

src/ImageSharp/IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}.cs

@@ -25,12 +25,12 @@ public sealed class IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> : IPixelSource, IDisposable
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}"/> class.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="configuration">
-    /// The configuration which allows altering default behaviour or extending the library.
+    /// The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.
     /// </param>
     /// <param name="width">The frame width.</param>
     /// <param name="height">The frame height.</param>
     /// <param name="palette">The color palette.</param>
-    internal IndexedImageFrame(Configuration configuration, int width, int height, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
+    public IndexedImageFrame(Configuration configuration, int width, int height, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
     {
         Guard.NotNull(configuration, nameof(configuration));
         Guard.MustBeLessThanOrEqualTo(palette.Length, QuantizerConstants.MaxColors, nameof(palette));
@@ -42,14 +42,14 @@ public sealed class IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> : IPixelSource, IDisposable
         this.Height = height;
         this.pixelBuffer = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate2D<byte>(width, height);
 
-        // Copy the palette over. We want the lifetime of this frame to be independant of any palette source.
+        // Copy the palette over. We want the lifetime of this frame to be independent of any palette source.
         this.paletteOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<TPixel>(palette.Length);
         palette.Span.CopyTo(this.paletteOwner.GetSpan());
         this.Palette = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..palette.Length];
     }
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// Gets the configuration which allows altering default behaviour or extending the library.
+    /// Gets the configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.
     /// </summary>
     public Configuration Configuration { get; }
 

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/CloningImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs

@@ -132,16 +132,14 @@ public abstract class CloningImageProcessor<TPixel> : ICloningImageProcessor<TPi
     /// <param name="source">The source image. Cannot be null.</param>
     /// <param name="destination">The cloned/destination image. Cannot be null.</param>
     protected virtual void AfterFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
-    {
+        => destination.Metadata.AfterFrameApply(source, destination);
-    }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// This method is called after the process is applied to prepare the processor.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="destination">The cloned/destination image. Cannot be null.</param>
     protected virtual void AfterImageApply(Image<TPixel> destination)
-    {
+        => destination.Metadata.AfterImageApply(destination);
-    }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Disposes the object and frees resources for the Garbage Collector.

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IDither.cs

@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ public interface IDither
     /// <param name="source">The source image.</param>
     /// <param name="destination">The destination quantized frame.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The region of interest bounds.</param>
-    void ApplyQuantizationDither<TFrameQuantizer, TPixel>(
+    public void ApplyQuantizationDither<TFrameQuantizer, TPixel>(
         ref TFrameQuantizer quantizer,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> source,
         IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> destination,
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ public interface IDither
     /// <param name="processor">The palette dithering processor.</param>
     /// <param name="source">The source image.</param>
     /// <param name="bounds">The region of interest bounds.</param>
-    void ApplyPaletteDither<TPaletteDitherImageProcessor, TPixel>(
+    public void ApplyPaletteDither<TPaletteDitherImageProcessor, TPixel>(
         in TPaletteDitherImageProcessor processor,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> source,
         Rectangle bounds)

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/IPaletteDitherImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs

@@ -15,22 +15,22 @@ public interface IPaletteDitherImageProcessor<TPixel>
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the configuration instance to use when performing operations.
     /// </summary>
-    Configuration Configuration { get; }
+    public Configuration Configuration { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the dithering palette.
     /// </summary>
-    ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither. Range 0..1.
     /// </summary>
-    float DitherScale { get; }
+    public float DitherScale { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Returns the color from the dithering palette corresponding to the given color.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
     /// <returns>The <typeparamref name="TPixel"/> match.</returns>
-    TPixel GetPaletteColor(TPixel color);
+    public TPixel GetPaletteColor(TPixel color);
 }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Dithering/PaletteDitherProcessor{TPixel}.cs

@@ -80,7 +80,7 @@ internal sealed class PaletteDitherProcessor<TPixel> : ImageProcessor<TPixel>
         Justification = "https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn-analyzers/issues/6151")]
     internal readonly struct DitherProcessor : IPaletteDitherImageProcessor<TPixel>, IDisposable
     {
-        private readonly EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> pixelMap;
+        private readonly PixelMap<TPixel> pixelMap;
 
         [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
         public DitherProcessor(
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ internal sealed class PaletteDitherProcessor<TPixel> : ImageProcessor<TPixel>
             float ditherScale)
         {
             this.Configuration = configuration;
-            this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(configuration, palette);
+            this.pixelMap = PixelMapFactory.Create(configuration, palette, ColorMatchingMode.Coarse);
             this.Palette = palette;
             this.DitherScale = ditherScale;
         }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/ImageProcessor{TPixel}.cs

@@ -95,7 +95,7 @@ public abstract class ImageProcessor<TPixel> : IImageProcessor<TPixel>
     protected abstract void OnFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source);
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// This method is called after the process is applied to prepare the processor.
+    /// This method is called after the process is applied to each frame.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="source">The source image. Cannot be null.</param>
     protected virtual void AfterFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source)
@@ -103,11 +103,10 @@ public abstract class ImageProcessor<TPixel> : IImageProcessor<TPixel>
     }
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// This method is called after the process is applied to prepare the processor.
+    /// This method is called after the process is applied to the complete image.
     /// </summary>
     protected virtual void AfterImageApply()
-    {
+        => this.Source.Metadata.AfterImageApply(this.Source);
-    }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Disposes the object and frees resources for the Garbage Collector.

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/ColorMatchingMode.cs

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Defines the precision level used when matching colors during quantization.
+/// </summary>
+public enum ColorMatchingMode
+{
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Uses a coarse caching strategy optimized for performance at the expense of exact matches.
+    /// This provides the fastest matching but may yield approximate results.
+    /// </summary>
+    Coarse,
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Enables an exact color match cache for the first 512 unique colors encountered,
+    /// falling back to coarse matching thereafter.
+    /// </summary>
+    Hybrid,
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Performs exact color matching without any caching optimizations.
+    /// This is the slowest but most accurate matching strategy.
+    /// </summary>
+    Exact
+}

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel,TCache}.cs

@@ -0,0 +1,184 @@
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Gets the closest color to the supplied color based upon the Euclidean distance.
+/// </summary>
+/// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
+/// <typeparam name="TCache">The cache type.</typeparam>
+/// <para>
+/// This class is not thread safe and should not be accessed in parallel.
+/// Doing so will result in non-idempotent results.
+/// </para>
+internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, TCache> : PixelMap<TPixel>
+    where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    where TCache : struct, IColorIndexCache<TCache>
+{
+    private Rgba32[] rgbaPalette;
+
+    // Do not make readonly. It's a mutable struct.
+#pragma warning disable IDE0044 // Add readonly modifier
+    private TCache cache;
+#pragma warning restore IDE0044 // Add readonly modifier
+
+    private readonly Configuration configuration;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel, TCache}"/> class.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="configuration">Specifies the settings and resources for the pixel map's operations.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">Defines the color palette used for pixel mapping.</param>
+    public EuclideanPixelMap(Configuration configuration, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
+    {
+        this.configuration = configuration;
+        this.Palette = palette;
+        this.rgbaPalette = new Rgba32[palette.Length];
+        this.cache = TCache.Create(configuration.MemoryAllocator);
+        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(configuration, this.Palette.Span, this.rgbaPalette);
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public override int GetClosestColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
+    {
+        ref TPixel paletteRef = ref MemoryMarshal.GetReference(this.Palette.Span);
+        Rgba32 rgba = color.ToRgba32();
+
+        if (this.cache.TryGetValue(rgba, out short index))
+        {
+            match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (ushort)index);
+            return index;
+        }
+
+        return this.GetClosestColorSlow(rgba, ref paletteRef, out match);
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public override void Clear(ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
+    {
+        this.Palette = palette;
+        this.rgbaPalette = new Rgba32[palette.Length];
+        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(this.configuration, this.Palette.Span, this.rgbaPalette);
+        this.cache.Clear();
+    }
+
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ColdPath)]
+    private int GetClosestColorSlow(Rgba32 rgba, ref TPixel paletteRef, out TPixel match)
+    {
+        // Loop through the palette and find the nearest match.
+        int index = 0;
+        float leastDistance = float.MaxValue;
+        for (int i = 0; i < this.rgbaPalette.Length; i++)
+        {
+            Rgba32 candidate = this.rgbaPalette[i];
+            if (candidate.PackedValue == rgba.PackedValue)
+            {
+                index = i;
+                break;
+            }
+
+            float distance = DistanceSquared(rgba, candidate);
+            if (distance == 0)
+            {
+                index = i;
+                break;
+            }
+
+            if (distance < leastDistance)
+            {
+                index = i;
+                leastDistance = distance;
+            }
+        }
+
+        // Now I have the index, pop it into the cache for next time
+        _ = this.cache.TryAdd(rgba, (short)index);
+        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (uint)index);
+
+        return index;
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Returns the Euclidean distance squared between two specified points.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="a">The first point.</param>
+    /// <param name="b">The second point.</param>
+    /// <returns>The distance squared.</returns>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    private static float DistanceSquared(Rgba32 a, Rgba32 b)
+    {
+        float deltaR = a.R - b.R;
+        float deltaG = a.G - b.G;
+        float deltaB = a.B - b.B;
+        float deltaA = a.A - b.A;
+        return (deltaR * deltaR) + (deltaG * deltaG) + (deltaB * deltaB) + (deltaA * deltaA);
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public override void Dispose() => this.cache.Dispose();
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a map of colors to indices.
+/// </summary>
+/// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
+internal abstract class PixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
+    where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+{
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Gets the color palette of this <see cref="PixelMap{TPixel}"/>.
+    /// </summary>
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; private protected set; }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Returns the closest color in the palette and the index of that pixel.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
+    /// <param name="match">The matched color.</param>
+    /// <returns>
+    /// The <see cref="int"/> index.
+    /// </returns>
+    public abstract int GetClosestColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match);
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Clears the map, resetting it to use the given palette.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to map from.</param>
+    public abstract void Clear(ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette);
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public abstract void Dispose();
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// A factory for creating <see cref="PixelMap{TPixel}"/> instances.
+/// </summary>
+internal static class PixelMapFactory
+{
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Creates a new <see cref="PixelMap{TPixel}"/> instance.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
+    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to map from.</param>
+    /// <param name="colorMatchingMode">The color matching mode.</param>
+    /// <returns>
+    /// The <see cref="PixelMap{TPixel}"/>.
+    /// </returns>
+    public static PixelMap<TPixel> Create<TPixel>(
+        Configuration configuration,
+        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette,
+        ColorMatchingMode colorMatchingMode)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel> => colorMatchingMode switch
+        {
+            ColorMatchingMode.Hybrid => new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, HybridCache>(configuration, palette),
+            ColorMatchingMode.Exact => new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, NullCache>(configuration, palette),
+            _ => new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel, CoarseCache>(configuration, palette),
+        };
+}

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}.cs

@@ -1,258 +0,0 @@
-// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
-// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
-
-using System.Buffers;
-using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
-using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
-using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Memory;
-using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
-
-namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
-
-/// <summary>
-/// Gets the closest color to the supplied color based upon the Euclidean distance.
-/// </summary>
-/// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
-/// <para>
-/// This class is not thread safe and should not be accessed in parallel.
-/// Doing so will result in non-idempotent results.
-/// </para>
-internal sealed class EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> : IDisposable
-    where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-{
-    private Rgba32[] rgbaPalette;
-    private int transparentIndex;
-    private readonly TPixel transparentMatch;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Do not make this readonly! Struct value would be always copied on non-readonly method calls.
-    /// </summary>
-    private ColorDistanceCache cache;
-    private readonly Configuration configuration;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}"/> class.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to map from.</param>
-    public EuclideanPixelMap(Configuration configuration, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
-        : this(configuration, palette, -1)
-    {
-    }
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}"/> class.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to map from.</param>
-    /// <param name="transparentIndex">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
-    public EuclideanPixelMap(Configuration configuration, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette, int transparentIndex = -1)
-    {
-        this.configuration = configuration;
-        this.Palette = palette;
-        this.rgbaPalette = new Rgba32[palette.Length];
-        this.cache = new ColorDistanceCache(configuration.MemoryAllocator);
-        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(configuration, this.Palette.Span, this.rgbaPalette);
-
-        this.transparentIndex = transparentIndex;
-        this.transparentMatch = TPixel.FromRgba32(default);
-    }
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Gets the color palette of this <see cref="EuclideanPixelMap{TPixel}"/>.
-    /// The palette memory is owned by the palette source that created it.
-    /// </summary>
-    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; private set; }
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Returns the closest color in the palette and the index of that pixel.
-    /// The palette contents must match the one used in the constructor.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
-    /// <param name="match">The matched color.</param>
-    /// <returns>The <see cref="int"/> index.</returns>
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-    public int GetClosestColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
-    {
-        ref TPixel paletteRef = ref MemoryMarshal.GetReference(this.Palette.Span);
-        Rgba32 rgba = color.ToRgba32();
-
-        // Check if the color is in the lookup table
-        if (!this.cache.TryGetValue(rgba, out short index))
-        {
-            return this.GetClosestColorSlow(rgba, ref paletteRef, out match);
-        }
-
-        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (ushort)index);
-        return index;
-    }
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Clears the map, resetting it to use the given palette.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to map from.</param>
-    public void Clear(ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
-    {
-        this.Palette = palette;
-        this.rgbaPalette = new Rgba32[palette.Length];
-        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(this.configuration, this.Palette.Span, this.rgbaPalette);
-        this.transparentIndex = -1;
-        this.cache.Clear();
-    }
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Allows setting the transparent index after construction.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="index">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
-    public void SetTransparentIndex(int index)
-    {
-        if (index != this.transparentIndex)
-        {
-            this.cache.Clear();
-        }
-
-        this.transparentIndex = index;
-    }
-
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-    private int GetClosestColorSlow(Rgba32 rgba, ref TPixel paletteRef, out TPixel match)
-    {
-        // Loop through the palette and find the nearest match.
-        int index = 0;
-
-        if (this.transparentIndex >= 0 && rgba == default)
-        {
-            // We have explicit instructions. No need to search.
-            index = this.transparentIndex;
-            this.cache.Add(rgba, (byte)index);
-            match = this.transparentMatch;
-            return index;
-        }
-
-        float leastDistance = float.MaxValue;
-        for (int i = 0; i < this.rgbaPalette.Length; i++)
-        {
-            Rgba32 candidate = this.rgbaPalette[i];
-            float distance = DistanceSquared(rgba, candidate);
-
-            // If it's an exact match, exit the loop
-            if (distance == 0)
-            {
-                index = i;
-                break;
-            }
-
-            if (distance < leastDistance)
-            {
-                // Less than... assign.
-                index = i;
-                leastDistance = distance;
-            }
-        }
-
-        // Now I have the index, pop it into the cache for next time
-        this.cache.Add(rgba, (byte)index);
-        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (uint)index);
-        return index;
-    }
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Returns the Euclidean distance squared between two specified points.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="a">The first point.</param>
-    /// <param name="b">The second point.</param>
-    /// <returns>The distance squared.</returns>
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-    private static float DistanceSquared(Rgba32 a, Rgba32 b)
-    {
-        float deltaR = a.R - b.R;
-        float deltaG = a.G - b.G;
-        float deltaB = a.B - b.B;
-        float deltaA = a.A - b.A;
-        return (deltaR * deltaR) + (deltaG * deltaG) + (deltaB * deltaB) + (deltaA * deltaA);
-    }
-
-    public void Dispose() => this.cache.Dispose();
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// A cache for storing color distance matching results.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <remarks>
-    /// <para>
-    /// The granularity of the cache has been determined based upon the current
-    /// suite of test images and provides the lowest possible memory usage while
-    /// providing enough match accuracy.
-    /// Entry count is currently limited to 2335905 entries (4MB).
-    /// </para>
-    /// </remarks>
-    private unsafe struct ColorDistanceCache : IDisposable
-    {
-        private const int IndexRBits = 5;
-        private const int IndexGBits = 5;
-        private const int IndexBBits = 5;
-        private const int IndexABits = 6;
-        private const int IndexRCount = (1 << IndexRBits) + 1;
-        private const int IndexGCount = (1 << IndexGBits) + 1;
-        private const int IndexBCount = (1 << IndexBBits) + 1;
-        private const int IndexACount = (1 << IndexABits) + 1;
-        private const int RShift = 8 - IndexRBits;
-        private const int GShift = 8 - IndexGBits;
-        private const int BShift = 8 - IndexBBits;
-        private const int AShift = 8 - IndexABits;
-        private const int Entries = IndexRCount * IndexGCount * IndexBCount * IndexACount;
-        private MemoryHandle tableHandle;
-        private readonly IMemoryOwner<short> table;
-        private readonly short* tablePointer;
-
-        public ColorDistanceCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
-        {
-            this.table = allocator.Allocate<short>(Entries);
-            this.table.GetSpan().Fill(-1);
-            this.tableHandle = this.table.Memory.Pin();
-            this.tablePointer = (short*)this.tableHandle.Pointer;
-        }
-
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public readonly void Add(Rgba32 rgba, byte index)
-        {
-            int idx = GetPaletteIndex(rgba);
-            this.tablePointer[idx] = index;
-        }
-
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public readonly bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 rgba, out short match)
-        {
-            int idx = GetPaletteIndex(rgba);
-            match = this.tablePointer[idx];
-            return match > -1;
-        }
-
-        /// <summary>
-        /// Clears the cache resetting each entry to empty.
-        /// </summary>
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public readonly void Clear() => this.table.GetSpan().Fill(-1);
-
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        private static int GetPaletteIndex(Rgba32 rgba)
-        {
-            int rIndex = rgba.R >> RShift;
-            int gIndex = rgba.G >> GShift;
-            int bIndex = rgba.B >> BShift;
-            int aIndex = rgba.A >> AShift;
-
-            return (aIndex * (IndexRCount * IndexGCount * IndexBCount)) +
-                   (rIndex * (IndexGCount * IndexBCount)) +
-                   (gIndex * IndexBCount) + bIndex;
-        }
-
-        public void Dispose()
-        {
-            if (this.table != null)
-            {
-                this.tableHandle.Dispose();
-                this.table.Dispose();
-            }
-        }
-    }
-}

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IColorIndexCache.cs

@@ -0,0 +1,569 @@
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+using System.Buffers;
+using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Memory;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a cache used for efficiently retrieving palette indices for colors.
+/// </summary>
+internal interface IColorIndexCache : IDisposable
+{
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Adds a color to the cache.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="color">The color to add.</param>
+    /// <param name="value">The index of the color in the palette.</param>
+    /// <returns>
+    /// <see langword="true"/> if the color was added; otherwise, <see langword="false"/>.
+    /// </returns>
+    public bool TryAdd(Rgba32 color, short value);
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Gets the index of the color in the palette.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="color">The color to get the index for.</param>
+    /// <param name="value">The index of the color in the palette.</param>
+    /// <returns>
+    /// <see langword="true"/> if the color is in the palette; otherwise, <see langword="false"/>.
+    /// </returns>
+    public bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short value);
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Clears the cache.
+    /// </summary>
+    public void Clear();
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a cache used for efficiently retrieving palette indices for colors.
+/// </summary>
+/// <typeparam name="T">The type of the cache.</typeparam>
+internal interface IColorIndexCache<T> : IColorIndexCache
+   where T : struct, IColorIndexCache
+{
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Creates a new instance of the cache.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="allocator">The memory allocator to use.</param>
+    /// <returns>
+    /// The new instance of the cache.
+    /// </returns>
+    public static abstract T Create(MemoryAllocator allocator);
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// A hybrid color distance cache that combines a small, fixed-capacity exact-match dictionary
+/// (ExactCache, ~4–5 KB for up to 512 entries) with a coarse lookup table (CoarseCache) for 5,5,5,6 precision.
+/// </summary>
+/// <remarks>
+/// ExactCache provides O(1) lookup for common cases using a simple 256-entry hash-based dictionary, while CoarseCache
+/// quantizes RGB channels to 5 bits (yielding 32^3 buckets) and alpha to 6 bits, storing up to 4 alpha entries per bucket
+/// (a design chosen based on probability theory to capture most real-world variations) for a total memory footprint of
+/// roughly 576 KB. Lookups and insertions are performed in constant time, making the overall design both fast and memory-predictable.
+/// </remarks>
+internal unsafe struct HybridCache : IColorIndexCache<HybridCache>
+{
+    private CoarseCache coarseCache;
+    private AccurateCache accurateCache;
+
+    public HybridCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+    {
+        this.accurateCache = AccurateCache.Create(allocator);
+        this.coarseCache = CoarseCache.Create(allocator);
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public static HybridCache Create(MemoryAllocator allocator) => new(allocator);
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public bool TryAdd(Rgba32 color, short index)
+    {
+        if (this.accurateCache.TryAdd(color, index))
+        {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        return this.coarseCache.TryAdd(color, index);
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public readonly bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short value)
+    {
+        if (this.accurateCache.TryGetValue(color, out value))
+        {
+            return true;
+        }
+
+        return this.coarseCache.TryGetValue(color, out value);
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public readonly void Clear()
+    {
+        this.accurateCache.Clear();
+        this.coarseCache.Clear();
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+        this.accurateCache.Dispose();
+        this.coarseCache.Dispose();
+    }
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// A coarse cache for color distance lookups that uses a fixed-size lookup table.
+/// </summary>
+/// <remarks>
+/// This cache uses a fixed lookup table with 2,097,152 bins, each storing a 2-byte value,
+/// resulting in a memory usage of approximately 4 MB. Lookups and insertions are
+/// performed in constant time (O(1)) via direct table indexing. This design is optimized for
+/// speed while maintaining a predictable, fixed memory footprint.
+/// </remarks>
+internal unsafe struct CoarseCache : IColorIndexCache<CoarseCache>
+{
+    private const int IndexRBits = 5;
+    private const int IndexGBits = 5;
+    private const int IndexBBits = 5;
+    private const int IndexABits = 6;
+    private const int IndexRCount = 1 << IndexRBits; // 32 bins for red
+    private const int IndexGCount = 1 << IndexGBits; // 32 bins for green
+    private const int IndexBCount = 1 << IndexBBits; // 32 bins for blue
+    private const int IndexACount = 1 << IndexABits; // 64 bins for alpha
+    private const int TotalBins = IndexRCount * IndexGCount * IndexBCount * IndexACount; // 2,097,152 bins
+
+    private readonly IMemoryOwner<short> binsOwner;
+    private readonly short* binsPointer;
+    private MemoryHandle binsHandle;
+
+    private CoarseCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+    {
+        this.binsOwner = allocator.Allocate<short>(TotalBins);
+        this.binsOwner.GetSpan().Fill(-1);
+        this.binsHandle = this.binsOwner.Memory.Pin();
+        this.binsPointer = (short*)this.binsHandle.Pointer;
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public static CoarseCache Create(MemoryAllocator allocator) => new(allocator);
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public readonly bool TryAdd(Rgba32 color, short value)
+    {
+        this.binsPointer[GetCoarseIndex(color)] = value;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public readonly bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short value)
+    {
+        value = this.binsPointer[GetCoarseIndex(color)];
+        return value > -1; // Coarse match found
+    }
+
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    private static int GetCoarseIndex(Rgba32 color)
+    {
+        int rIndex = color.R >> (8 - IndexRBits);
+        int gIndex = color.G >> (8 - IndexGBits);
+        int bIndex = color.B >> (8 - IndexBBits);
+        int aIndex = color.A >> (8 - IndexABits);
+
+        return (aIndex * IndexRCount * IndexGCount * IndexBCount) +
+               (rIndex * IndexGCount * IndexBCount) +
+               (gIndex * IndexBCount) +
+               bIndex;
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public readonly void Clear()
+        => this.binsOwner.GetSpan().Fill(-1);
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+        this.binsHandle.Dispose();
+        this.binsOwner.Dispose();
+    }
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// <para>
+/// CoarseCache is a fast, low-memory lookup structure for caching palette indices associated with RGBA values,
+/// using a quantized representation of 5,5,5,6 (RGB: 5 bits each, Alpha: 6 bits).
+/// </para>
+/// <para>
+/// The cache quantizes the RGB channels to 5 bits each, resulting in 32 levels per channel and a total of 32³ = 32,768 buckets.
+/// Each bucket is represented by an <see cref="AlphaBucket"/>, which holds a small, inline array of alpha entries.
+/// Each alpha entry stores the alpha value quantized to 6 bits (0–63) along with a palette index (a 16-bit value).
+/// </para>
+/// <para>
+/// Performance Characteristics:
+///   - Lookup: O(1) for computing the bucket index from the RGB channels, plus a small constant time (up to 8 iterations)
+///     to search through the alpha entries in the bucket.
+///   - Insertion: O(1) for bucket index computation and a quick linear search over a very small (fixed) number of entries.
+/// </para>
+/// <para>
+/// Memory Characteristics:
+///   - The cache consists of 32,768 buckets.
+///   - Each <see cref="AlphaBucket"/> is implemented using an inline array with a capacity of 8 entries.
+///   - Each bucket occupies approximately 1 byte (Count) + (8 entries × 3 bytes each) ≈ 25 bytes.
+///   - Overall, the buckets occupy roughly 32,768 × 25 bytes = 819,200 bytes (≈ 800 KB).
+/// </para>
+/// <para>
+/// This design provides nearly constant-time lookup and insertion with minimal memory usage,
+/// making it ideal for applications such as color distance caching in images with a limited palette (up to 256 entries).
+/// </para>
+/// </summary>
+internal unsafe struct CoarseCacheLite : IColorIndexCache<CoarseCacheLite>
+{
+    // Use 5 bits per channel for R, G, and B: 32 levels each.
+    // Total buckets = 32^3 = 32768.
+    private const int RgbBits = 5;
+    private const int RgbShift = 8 - RgbBits; // 3
+    private const int BucketCount = 1 << (RgbBits * 3); // 32768
+    private readonly IMemoryOwner<AlphaBucket> bucketsOwner;
+    private readonly AlphaBucket* buckets;
+    private MemoryHandle bucketHandle;
+
+    private CoarseCacheLite(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+    {
+        this.bucketsOwner = allocator.Allocate<AlphaBucket>(BucketCount, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        this.bucketHandle = this.bucketsOwner.Memory.Pin();
+        this.buckets = (AlphaBucket*)this.bucketHandle.Pointer;
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public static CoarseCacheLite Create(MemoryAllocator allocator) => new(allocator);
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public readonly bool TryAdd(Rgba32 color, short paletteIndex)
+    {
+        int bucketIndex = GetBucketIndex(color.R, color.G, color.B);
+        byte quantAlpha = QuantizeAlpha(color.A);
+        this.buckets[bucketIndex].Add(quantAlpha, paletteIndex);
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public readonly bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short paletteIndex)
+    {
+        int bucketIndex = GetBucketIndex(color.R, color.G, color.B);
+        byte quantAlpha = QuantizeAlpha(color.A);
+        return this.buckets[bucketIndex].TryGetValue(quantAlpha, out paletteIndex);
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public readonly void Clear()
+    {
+        Span<AlphaBucket> bucketsSpan = this.bucketsOwner.GetSpan();
+        bucketsSpan.Clear();
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+        this.bucketHandle.Dispose();
+        this.bucketsOwner.Dispose();
+    }
+
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    private static int GetBucketIndex(byte r, byte g, byte b)
+    {
+        int qr = r >> RgbShift;
+        int qg = g >> RgbShift;
+        int qb = b >> RgbShift;
+
+        // Combine the quantized channels into a single index.
+        return (qr << (RgbBits << 1)) | (qg << RgbBits) | qb;
+    }
+
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    private static byte QuantizeAlpha(byte a)
+
+        // Quantize to 6 bits: shift right by (8 - 6) = 2 bits.
+        => (byte)(a >> 2);
+
+    public struct AlphaEntry
+    {
+        // Store the alpha value quantized to 6 bits (0..63)
+        public byte QuantizedAlpha;
+        public short PaletteIndex;
+    }
+
+    public struct AlphaBucket
+    {
+        // Fixed capacity for alpha entries in this bucket.
+        // We choose a capacity of 8 for several reasons:
+        //
+        // 1. The alpha channel is quantized to 6 bits, so there are 64 possible distinct values.
+        //    In the worst-case, a given RGB bucket might encounter up to 64 different alpha values.
+        //
+        // 2. However, in practice (based on probability theory and typical image data),
+        //    the number of unique alpha values that actually occur for a given quantized RGB
+        //    bucket is usually very small. If you randomly sample 8 values out of 64,
+        //    the probability that these 4 samples are all unique is high if the distribution
+        //    of alpha values is skewed or if only a few alpha values are used.
+        //
+        // 3. Statistically, for many real-world images, most RGB buckets will have only a couple
+        //    of unique alpha values. Allocating 8 slots per bucket provides a good trade-off:
+        //    it captures the common-case scenario while keeping overall memory usage low.
+        //
+        // 4. Even if more than 8 unique alpha values occur in a bucket,
+        //    our design overwrites the first entry. This behavior gives us some "wriggle room"
+        //    while preserving the most frequently encountered or most recent values.
+        public const int Capacity = 8;
+        public byte Count;
+        private InlineArray8<AlphaEntry> entries;
+
+        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+        public bool TryGetValue(byte quantizedAlpha, out short paletteIndex)
+        {
+            for (int i = 0; i < this.Count; i++)
+            {
+                ref AlphaEntry entry = ref this.entries[i];
+                if (entry.QuantizedAlpha == quantizedAlpha)
+                {
+                    paletteIndex = entry.PaletteIndex;
+                    return true;
+                }
+            }
+
+            paletteIndex = -1;
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+        public void Add(byte quantizedAlpha, short paletteIndex)
+        {
+            // Check for an existing entry with the same quantized alpha.
+            for (int i = 0; i < this.Count; i++)
+            {
+                ref AlphaEntry entry = ref this.entries[i];
+                if (entry.QuantizedAlpha == quantizedAlpha)
+                {
+                    // Update palette index if found.
+                    entry.PaletteIndex = paletteIndex;
+                    return;
+                }
+            }
+
+            // If there's room, add a new entry.
+            if (this.Count < Capacity)
+            {
+                ref AlphaEntry newEntry = ref this.entries[this.Count];
+                newEntry.QuantizedAlpha = quantizedAlpha;
+                newEntry.PaletteIndex = paletteIndex;
+                this.Count++;
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                // Bucket is full. Overwrite the first entry to give us some wriggle room.
+                this.entries[0].QuantizedAlpha = quantizedAlpha;
+                this.entries[0].PaletteIndex = paletteIndex;
+            }
+        }
+    }
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// A fixed-capacity dictionary with exactly 512 entries mapping a <see cref="uint"/> key
+/// to a <see cref="short"/> value.
+/// </summary>
+/// <remarks>
+/// The dictionary is implemented using a fixed array of 512 buckets and an entries array
+/// of the same size. The bucket for a key is computed as (key &amp; 0x1FF), and collisions are
+/// resolved through a linked chain stored in the <see cref="Entry.Next"/> field.
+/// The overall memory usage is approximately 4–5 KB. Both lookup and insertion operations are,
+/// on average, O(1) since the bucket is determined via a simple bitmask and collision chains are
+/// typically very short; in the worst-case, the number of iterations is bounded by 256.
+/// This guarantees highly efficient and predictable performance for small, fixed-size color palettes.
+/// </remarks>
+internal unsafe struct AccurateCache : IColorIndexCache<AccurateCache>
+{
+    // Buckets array: each bucket holds the index (0-based) into the entries array
+    // of the first entry in the chain, or -1 if empty.
+    private readonly IMemoryOwner<short> bucketsOwner;
+    private MemoryHandle bucketsHandle;
+    private short* buckets;
+
+    // Entries array: stores up to 256 entries.
+    private readonly IMemoryOwner<Entry> entriesOwner;
+    private MemoryHandle entriesHandle;
+    private Entry* entries;
+
+    public const int Capacity = 512;
+
+    private AccurateCache(MemoryAllocator allocator)
+    {
+        this.Count = 0;
+
+        // Allocate exactly 512 indexes for buckets.
+        this.bucketsOwner = allocator.Allocate<short>(Capacity, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        Span<short> bucketSpan = this.bucketsOwner.GetSpan();
+        bucketSpan.Fill(-1);
+        this.bucketsHandle = this.bucketsOwner.Memory.Pin();
+        this.buckets = (short*)this.bucketsHandle.Pointer;
+
+        // Allocate exactly 512 entries.
+        this.entriesOwner = allocator.Allocate<Entry>(Capacity, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+        this.entriesHandle = this.entriesOwner.Memory.Pin();
+        this.entries = (Entry*)this.entriesHandle.Pointer;
+    }
+
+    public int Count { get; private set; }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public static AccurateCache Create(MemoryAllocator allocator) => new(allocator);
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public bool TryAdd(Rgba32 color, short value)
+    {
+        if (this.Count == Capacity)
+        {
+            return false; // Dictionary is full.
+        }
+
+        uint key = color.PackedValue;
+
+        // The key is a 32-bit unsigned integer representing an RGBA color, where the bytes are laid out as R|G|B|A
+        // (with R in the most significant byte and A in the least significant).
+        // To compute the bucket index:
+        // 1. (key >> 16) extracts the top 16 bits, effectively giving us the R and G channels.
+        // 2. (key >> 8) shifts the key right by 8 bits, bringing R, G, and B into the lower 24 bits (dropping A).
+        // 3. XORing these two values with the original key mixes bits from all four channels (R, G, B, and A),
+        //    which helps to counteract situations where one or more channels have a limited range.
+        // 4. Finally, we apply a bitmask of 0x1FF to keep only the lowest 9 bits, ensuring the result is between 0 and 511,
+        //    which corresponds to our fixed bucket count of 512.
+        int bucket = (int)(((key >> 16) ^ (key >> 8) ^ key) & 0x1FF);
+        int i = this.buckets[bucket];
+
+        // Traverse the collision chain.
+        Entry* entries = this.entries;
+        while (i != -1)
+        {
+            Entry e = entries[i];
+            if (e.Key == key)
+            {
+                // Key already exists; do not overwrite.
+                return false;
+            }
+
+            i = e.Next;
+        }
+
+        short index = (short)this.Count;
+        this.Count++;
+
+        // Insert the new entry:
+        entries[index].Key = key;
+        entries[index].Value = value;
+
+        // Link this new entry into the bucket chain.
+        entries[index].Next = this.buckets[bucket];
+        this.buckets[bucket] = index;
+        return true;
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short value)
+    {
+        uint key = color.PackedValue;
+        int bucket = (int)(((key >> 16) ^ (key >> 8) ^ key) & 0x1FF);
+        int i = this.buckets[bucket];
+
+        // If the bucket is empty, return immediately.
+        if (i == -1)
+        {
+            value = -1;
+            return false;
+        }
+
+        // Traverse the chain.
+        Entry* entries = this.entries;
+        do
+        {
+            Entry e = entries[i];
+            if (e.Key == key)
+            {
+                value = e.Value;
+                return true;
+            }
+
+            i = e.Next;
+        }
+        while (i != -1);
+
+        value = -1;
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Clears the dictionary.
+    /// </summary>
+    public void Clear()
+    {
+        Span<short> bucketSpan = this.bucketsOwner.GetSpan();
+        bucketSpan.Fill(-1);
+        this.Count = 0;
+    }
+
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+        this.bucketsHandle.Dispose();
+        this.bucketsOwner.Dispose();
+        this.entriesHandle.Dispose();
+        this.entriesOwner.Dispose();
+        this.buckets = null;
+        this.entries = null;
+    }
+
+    private struct Entry
+    {
+        public uint Key;     // The key (packed RGBA)
+        public short Value;  // The value; -1 means unused.
+        public short Next;     // Index of the next entry in the chain, or -1 if none.
+    }
+}
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Represents a cache that does not store any values.
+/// It allows adding colors, but always returns false when trying to retrieve them.
+/// </summary>
+internal readonly struct NullCache : IColorIndexCache<NullCache>
+{
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public static NullCache Create(MemoryAllocator allocator) => default;
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public bool TryAdd(Rgba32 color, short value) => true;
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public bool TryGetValue(Rgba32 color, out short value)
+    {
+        value = -1;
+        return false;
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public void Clear()
+    {
+    }
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public void Dispose()
+    {
+    }
+}

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IQuantizer.cs

@@ -13,7 +13,7 @@ public interface IQuantizer
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the quantizer options defining quantization rules.
     /// </summary>
-    QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
+    public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Creates the generic frame quantizer.
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ public interface IQuantizer
     /// <param name="configuration">The <see cref="Configuration"/> to configure internal operations.</param>
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="IQuantizer{TPixel}"/>.</returns>
-    IQuantizer<TPixel> CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(Configuration configuration)
+    public IQuantizer<TPixel> CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(Configuration configuration)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>;
 
     /// <summary>
@@ -31,6 +31,6 @@ public interface IQuantizer
     /// <param name="configuration">The <see cref="Configuration"/> to configure internal operations.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The options to create the quantizer with.</param>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="IQuantizer{TPixel}"/>.</returns>
-    IQuantizer<TPixel> CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(Configuration configuration, QuantizerOptions options)
+    public IQuantizer<TPixel> CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<TPixel>(Configuration configuration, QuantizerOptions options)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>;
 }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IQuantizer{TPixel}.cs

@@ -16,26 +16,26 @@ public interface IQuantizer<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the configuration.
     /// </summary>
-    Configuration Configuration { get; }
+    public Configuration Configuration { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the quantizer options defining quantization rules.
     /// </summary>
-    QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
+    public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the quantized color palette.
     /// </summary>
     /// <exception cref="InvalidOperationException">
-    /// The palette has not been built via <see cref="AddPaletteColors"/>.
+    /// The palette has not been built via <see cref="AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion{TPixel})"/>.
     /// </exception>
-    ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette { get; }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Adds colors to the quantized palette from the given pixel source.
     /// </summary>
     /// <param name="pixelRegion">The <see cref="Buffer2DRegion{T}"/> of source pixels to register.</param>
-    void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion);
+    public void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Quantizes an image frame and return the resulting output pixels.
@@ -46,10 +46,10 @@ public interface IQuantizer<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// A <see cref="IndexedImageFrame{TPixel}"/> representing a quantized version of the source frame pixels.
     /// </returns>
     /// <remarks>
-    /// Only executes the second (quantization) step. The palette has to be built by calling <see cref="AddPaletteColors"/>.
+    /// Only executes the second (quantization) step. The palette has to be built by calling <see cref="AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion{TPixel})"/>.
-    /// To run both steps, use <see cref="QuantizerUtilities.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame{TPixel}"/>.
+    /// To run both steps, use <see cref="QuantizerUtilities.BuildPaletteAndQuantizeFrame{TPixel}(IQuantizer{TPixel}, ImageFrame{TPixel}, Rectangle)"/>.
     /// </remarks>
-    IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> QuantizeFrame(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, Rectangle bounds);
+    public IndexedImageFrame<TPixel> QuantizeFrame(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, Rectangle bounds);
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Returns the index and color from the quantized palette corresponding to the given color.
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ public interface IQuantizer<TPixel> : IDisposable
     /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
     /// <param name="match">The matched color.</param>
     /// <returns>The <see cref="byte"/> index.</returns>
-    byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match);
+    public byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match);
 
     // TODO: Enable bulk operations.
     // void GetQuantizedColors(ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> colors, ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> palette, Span<byte> indices, Span<TPixel> matches);

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/IQuantizingPixelRowDelegate{TPixel}.cs

@@ -0,0 +1,21 @@
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
+
+/// <summary>
+/// Defines a delegate for processing a row of pixels in an image for quantization.
+/// </summary>
+/// <typeparam name="TPixel">Represents a pixel type that can be processed in a quantizing operation.</typeparam>
+internal interface IQuantizingPixelRowDelegate<TPixel>
+    where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+{
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Processes a row of pixels for quantization.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="row">The row of pixels to process.</param>
+    /// <param name="rowIndex">The index of the row being processed.</param>
+    public void Invoke(ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> row, int rowIndex);
+}

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/OctreeQuantizer{TPixel}.cs

@@ -16,11 +16,10 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 /// <see href="http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa479306.aspx"/>
 /// </summary>
 /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
-[SuppressMessage(
+#pragma warning disable CA1001 // Types that own disposable fields should be disposable
-    "Design",
+// See https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn-analyzers/issues/6151
-    "CA1001:Types that own disposable fields should be disposable",
-    Justification = "https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn-analyzers/issues/6151")]
 public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
+#pragma warning restore CA1001 // Types that own disposable fields should be disposable
     where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
 {
     private readonly int maxColors;
@@ -28,14 +27,14 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     private readonly Octree octree;
     private readonly IMemoryOwner<TPixel> paletteOwner;
     private ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette;
-    private EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>? pixelMap;
+    private PixelMap<TPixel>? pixelMap;
     private readonly bool isDithering;
     private bool isDisposed;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="OctreeQuantizer{TPixel}"/> struct.
     /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behaviour or extending the library.</param>
+    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
     public OctreeQuantizer(Configuration configuration, QuantizerOptions options)
@@ -45,7 +44,7 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
 
         this.maxColors = this.Options.MaxColors;
         this.bitDepth = Numerics.Clamp(ColorNumerics.GetBitsNeededForColorDepth(this.maxColors), 1, 8);
-        this.octree = new Octree(this.bitDepth);
+        this.octree = new Octree(configuration, this.bitDepth, this.maxColors, this.Options.TransparencyThreshold);
         this.paletteOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<TPixel>(this.maxColors, AllocationOptions.Clean);
         this.pixelMap = default;
         this.palette = default;
@@ -60,64 +59,41 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public readonly ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
     {
         get
         {
-            QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            if (this.palette.IsEmpty)
+            {
+                this.ResolvePalette();
+                QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            }
+
             return this.palette;
         }
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    public readonly void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
     {
-        using (IMemoryOwner<Rgba32> buffer = this.Configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Rgba32>(pixelRegion.Width))
+        PixelRowDelegate pixelRowDelegate = new(this.octree);
-        {
+        QuantizerUtilities.AddPaletteColors<OctreeQuantizer<TPixel>, TPixel, Rgba32, PixelRowDelegate>(
-            Span<Rgba32> bufferSpan = buffer.GetSpan();
+            ref Unsafe.AsRef(in this),
-
+            in pixelRegion,
-            // Loop through each row
+            in pixelRowDelegate);
-            for (int y = 0; y < pixelRegion.Height; y++)
+    }
-            {
-                Span<TPixel> row = pixelRegion.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
-                PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(this.Configuration, row, bufferSpan);
-
-                for (int x = 0; x < bufferSpan.Length; x++)
-                {
-                    Rgba32 rgba = bufferSpan[x];
-
-                    // Add the color to the Octree
-                    this.octree.AddColor(rgba);
-                }
-            }
-        }
 
-        int paletteIndex = 0;
+    private void ResolvePalette()
+    {
+        short paletteIndex = 0;
         Span<TPixel> paletteSpan = this.paletteOwner.GetSpan();
 
-        // On very rare occasions, (blur.png), the quantizer does not preserve a
+        this.octree.Palettize(paletteSpan, ref paletteIndex);
-        // transparent entry when palletizing the captured colors.
-        // To workaround this we ensure the palette ends with the default color
-        // for higher bit depths. Lower bit depths will correctly reduce the palette.
-        // TODO: Investigate more evenly reduced palette reduction.
-        int max = this.maxColors;
-        if (this.bitDepth >= 4)
-        {
-            max--;
-        }
-
-        this.octree.Palletize(paletteSpan, max, ref paletteIndex);
         ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> result = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..paletteSpan.Length];
 
-        // When called multiple times by QuantizerUtilities.BuildPalette
+        if (this.isDithering)
-        // this prevents memory churn caused by reallocation.
-        if (this.pixelMap is null)
-        {
-            this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(this.Configuration, result);
-        }
-        else
         {
-            this.pixelMap.Clear(result);
+            this.pixelMap = PixelMapFactory.Create(this.Configuration, result, this.Options.ColorMatchingMode);
         }
 
         this.palette = result;
@@ -132,18 +108,19 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
     public readonly byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
     {
-        // Octree only maps the RGB component of a color
+        // Due to the addition of new colors by dithering that are not part of the original histogram,
-        // so cannot tell the difference between a fully transparent
+        // the octree nodes might not match the correct color.
-        // pixel and a black one.
+        // In this case, we must use the pixel map to get the closest color.
-        if (this.isDithering || color.Equals(default))
+        if (this.isDithering)
         {
             return (byte)this.pixelMap!.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
         }
 
         ref TPixel paletteRef = ref MemoryMarshal.GetReference(this.palette.Span);
-        byte index = (byte)this.octree.GetPaletteIndex(color);
+
-        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, index);
+        int index = this.octree.GetPaletteIndex(color);
-        return index;
+        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (nuint)index);
+        return (byte)index;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -155,413 +132,529 @@ public struct OctreeQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             this.paletteOwner.Dispose();
             this.pixelMap?.Dispose();
             this.pixelMap = null;
+            this.octree.Dispose();
         }
     }
 
+    private readonly struct PixelRowDelegate : IQuantizingPixelRowDelegate<Rgba32>
+    {
+        private readonly Octree octree;
+
+        public PixelRowDelegate(Octree octree) => this.octree = octree;
+
+        public void Invoke(ReadOnlySpan<Rgba32> row, int rowIndex) => this.octree.AddColors(row);
+    }
+
     /// <summary>
-    /// Class which does the actual quantization.
+    /// A hexadecatree-based color quantization structure used for fast color distance lookups and palette generation.
+    /// This tree maintains a fixed pool of nodes (capacity 4096) where each node can have up to 16 children, stores
+    /// color accumulation data, and supports dynamic node allocation and reduction. It offers near-constant-time insertions
+    /// and lookups while consuming roughly 240 KB for the node pool.
     /// </summary>
-    private sealed class Octree
+    internal sealed class Octree : IDisposable
     {
-        /// <summary>
+        // The memory allocator.
-        /// The root of the Octree
+        private readonly MemoryAllocator allocator;
-        /// </summary>
-        private readonly OctreeNode root;
 
-        /// <summary>
+        // Pooled buffer for OctreeNodes.
-        /// Maximum number of significant bits in the image
+        private readonly IMemoryOwner<OctreeNode> nodesOwner;
-        /// </summary>
+
+        // Reducible nodes: one per level; we use an integer index; -1 means “no node.”
+        private readonly short[] reducibleNodes;
+
+        // Maximum number of allowable colors.
+        private readonly int maxColors;
+
+        // Maximum significant bits.
         private readonly int maxColorBits;
 
-        /// <summary>
+        // The threshold for transparent colors.
-        /// Store the last node quantized
+        private readonly int transparencyThreshold255;
-        /// </summary>
-        private OctreeNode? previousNode;
 
-        /// <summary>
+        // Instead of a reference to the root, we store the index of the root node.
-        /// Cache the previous color quantized
+        // Index 0 is reserved for the root.
-        /// </summary>
+        private readonly short rootIndex;
+
+        // Running index for node allocation. Start at 1 so that index 0 is reserved for the root.
+        private short nextNode = 1;
+
+        // Previously quantized node (index; -1 if none) and its color.
+        private int previousNode;
         private Rgba32 previousColor;
 
+        // Free list for reclaimed node indices.
+        private readonly Stack<short> freeIndices = new();
+
         /// <summary>
         /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="Octree"/> class.
         /// </summary>
-        /// <param name="maxColorBits">
+        /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.</param>
-        /// The maximum number of significant bits in the image
+        /// <param name="maxColorBits">The maximum number of significant bits in the image.</param>
-        /// </param>
+        /// <param name="maxColors">The maximum number of colors to allow in the palette.</param>
-        public Octree(int maxColorBits)
+        /// <param name="transparencyThreshold">The threshold for transparent colors.</param>
+        public Octree(
+            Configuration configuration,
+            int maxColorBits,
+            int maxColors,
+            float transparencyThreshold)
         {
             this.maxColorBits = maxColorBits;
+            this.maxColors = maxColors;
+            this.transparencyThreshold255 = (int)(transparencyThreshold * 255F);
             this.Leaves = 0;
-            this.ReducibleNodes = new OctreeNode[9];
+            this.previousNode = -1;
-            this.root = new OctreeNode(0, this.maxColorBits, this);
             this.previousColor = default;
-            this.previousNode = null;
+
+            // Allocate a conservative buffer for nodes.
+            const int capacity = 4096;
+            this.allocator = configuration.MemoryAllocator;
+            this.nodesOwner = this.allocator.Allocate<OctreeNode>(capacity, AllocationOptions.Clean);
+
+            // Create the reducible nodes array (one per level 0 .. maxColorBits-1).
+            this.reducibleNodes = new short[this.maxColorBits];
+            this.reducibleNodes.AsSpan().Fill(-1);
+
+            // Reserve index 0 for the root.
+            this.rootIndex = 0;
+            ref OctreeNode root = ref this.Nodes[this.rootIndex];
+            root.Initialize(0, this.maxColorBits, this, this.rootIndex);
         }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Gets or sets the number of leaves in the tree
+        /// Gets or sets the number of leaves in the tree.
         /// </summary>
-        public int Leaves
+        public int Leaves { get; set; }
-        {
-            [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-            get;
 
-            [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+        /// <summary>
-            set;
+        /// Gets the full collection of nodes as a span.
-        }
+        /// </summary>
+        internal Span<OctreeNode> Nodes => this.nodesOwner.Memory.Span;
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Gets the array of reducible nodes
+        /// Adds a span of colors to the octree.
         /// </summary>
-        private OctreeNode?[] ReducibleNodes
+        /// <param name="row">A span of color values to be added.</param>
+        public void AddColors(ReadOnlySpan<Rgba32> row)
         {
-            [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+            for (int x = 0; x < row.Length; x++)
-            get;
+            {
+                this.AddColor(row[x]);
+            }
         }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Add a given color value to the Octree
+        /// Add a color to the Octree.
         /// </summary>
         /// <param name="color">The color to add.</param>
-        public void AddColor(Rgba32 color)
+        private void AddColor(Rgba32 color)
         {
-            // Check if this request is for the same color as the last
+            // Ensure that the tree is not already full.
+            if (this.nextNode >= this.Nodes.Length && this.freeIndices.Count == 0)
+            {
+                while (this.Leaves > this.maxColors)
+                {
+                    this.Reduce();
+                }
+            }
+
+            // If the color is the same as the previous color, increment the node.
+            // Otherwise, add a new node.
             if (this.previousColor.Equals(color))
             {
-                // If so, check if I have a previous node setup.
+                if (this.previousNode == -1)
-                // This will only occur if the first color in the image
-                // happens to be black, with an alpha component of zero.
-                if (this.previousNode is null)
                 {
                     this.previousColor = color;
-                    this.root.AddColor(ref color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
+                    OctreeNode.AddColor(this.rootIndex, color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    // Just update the previous node
+                    OctreeNode.Increment(this.previousNode, color, this);
-                    this.previousNode.Increment(ref color);
                 }
             }
             else
             {
                 this.previousColor = color;
-                this.root.AddColor(ref color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
+                OctreeNode.AddColor(this.rootIndex, color, this.maxColorBits, 0, this);
             }
         }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Convert the nodes in the Octree to a palette with a maximum of colorCount colors
+        /// Construct the palette from the octree.
         /// </summary>
-        /// <param name="palette">The palette to fill.</param>
+        /// <param name="palette">The palette to construct.</param>
-        /// <param name="colorCount">The maximum number of colors</param>
+        /// <param name="paletteIndex">The current palette index.</param>
-        /// <param name="paletteIndex">The palette index, used to calculate the final size of the palette.</param>
+        public void Palettize(Span<TPixel> palette, ref short paletteIndex)
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-        public void Palletize(Span<TPixel> palette, int colorCount, ref int paletteIndex)
         {
-            while (this.Leaves > colorCount)
+            while (this.Leaves > this.maxColors)
             {
                 this.Reduce();
             }
 
-            this.root.ConstructPalette(palette, ref paletteIndex);
+            this.Nodes[this.rootIndex].ConstructPalette(this, palette, ref paletteIndex);
         }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Get the palette index for the passed color
+        /// Get the palette index for the passed color.
         /// </summary>
-        /// <param name="color">The color to match.</param>
+        /// <param name="color">The color to get the palette index for.</param>
-        /// <returns>
+        /// <returns>The <see cref="int"/>.</returns>
-        /// The <see cref="int"/> index.
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
-        /// </returns>
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
         public int GetPaletteIndex(TPixel color)
-        {
+            => this.Nodes[this.rootIndex].GetPaletteIndex(color.ToRgba32(), 0, this);
-            Rgba32 rgba = color.ToRgba32();
-            return this.root.GetPaletteIndex(ref rgba, 0);
-        }
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Keep track of the previous node that was quantized
+        /// Track the previous node and color.
         /// </summary>
-        /// <param name="node">
+        /// <param name="nodeIndex">The node index.</param>
-        /// The node last quantized
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
-        /// </param>
+        public void TrackPrevious(int nodeIndex)
-        [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+            => this.previousNode = nodeIndex;
-        public void TrackPrevious(OctreeNode node) => this.previousNode = node;
 
         /// <summary>
-        /// Reduce the depth of the tree
+        /// Reduce the depth of the tree.
         /// </summary>
         private void Reduce()
         {
             // Find the deepest level containing at least one reducible node
             int index = this.maxColorBits - 1;
-            while ((index > 0) && (this.ReducibleNodes[index] is null))
+            while ((index > 0) && (this.reducibleNodes[index] == -1))
             {
                 index--;
             }
 
             // Reduce the node most recently added to the list at level 'index'
-            OctreeNode node = this.ReducibleNodes[index]!;
+            ref OctreeNode node = ref this.Nodes[this.reducibleNodes[index]];
-            this.ReducibleNodes[index] = node.NextReducible;
+            this.reducibleNodes[index] = node.NextReducibleIndex;
 
             // Decrement the leaf count after reducing the node
-            this.Leaves -= node.Reduce();
+            node.Reduce(this);
 
             // And just in case I've reduced the last color to be added, and the next color to
             // be added is the same, invalidate the previousNode...
-            this.previousNode = null;
+            this.previousNode = -1;
         }
 
-        /// <summary>
+        // Allocate a new OctreeNode from the pooled buffer.
-        /// Class which encapsulates each node in the tree
+        // First check the freeIndices stack.
-        /// </summary>
+        internal short AllocateNode()
-        public sealed class OctreeNode
         {
-            /// <summary>
+            if (this.freeIndices.Count > 0)
-            /// Pointers to any child nodes
+            {
-            /// </summary>
+                return this.freeIndices.Pop();
-            private readonly OctreeNode?[]? children;
+            }
-
-            /// <summary>
-            /// Flag indicating that this is a leaf node
-            /// </summary>
-            private bool leaf;
 
-            /// <summary>
+            if (this.nextNode >= this.Nodes.Length)
-            /// Number of pixels in this node
+            {
-            /// </summary>
+                return -1;
-            private int pixelCount;
+            }
 
-            /// <summary>
+            short newIndex = this.nextNode;
-            /// Red component
+            this.nextNode++;
-            /// </summary>
+            return newIndex;
-            private int red;
+        }
 
-            /// <summary>
+        /// <summary>
-            /// Green Component
+        /// Free a node index, making it available for re-allocation.
-            /// </summary>
+        /// </summary>
-            private int green;
+        /// <param name="index">The index to free.</param>
+        [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
+        internal void FreeNode(short index)
+        {
+            this.freeIndices.Push(index);
+            this.Leaves--;
+        }
 
-            /// <summary>
+        /// <inheritdoc/>
-            /// Blue component
+        public void Dispose() => this.nodesOwner.Dispose();
-            /// </summary>
-            private int blue;
 
-            /// <summary>
+        [StructLayout(LayoutKind.Sequential)]
-            /// The index of this node in the palette
+        internal unsafe struct OctreeNode
-            /// </summary>
+        {
-            private int paletteIndex;
+            public bool Leaf;
+            public int PixelCount;
+            public int Red;
+            public int Green;
+            public int Blue;
+            public int Alpha;
+            public short PaletteIndex;
+            public short NextReducibleIndex;
+            private InlineArray16<short> children;
+
+            [UnscopedRef]
+            public Span<short> Children => this.children;
 
             /// <summary>
-            /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="OctreeNode"/> class.
+            /// Initialize the <see cref="OctreeNode"/>.
             /// </summary>
-            /// <param name="level">The level in the tree = 0 - 7.</param>
+            /// <param name="level">The level of the node.</param>
             /// <param name="colorBits">The number of significant color bits in the image.</param>
-            /// <param name="octree">The tree to which this node belongs.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
-            public OctreeNode(int level, int colorBits, Octree octree)
+            /// <param name="index">The index of the node.</param>
+            public void Initialize(int level, int colorBits, Octree octree, short index)
             {
-                // Construct the new node
+                // Construct the new node.
-                this.leaf = level == colorBits;
+                this.Leaf = level == colorBits;
-
+                this.Red = 0;
-                this.red = this.green = this.blue = 0;
+                this.Green = 0;
-                this.pixelCount = 0;
+                this.Blue = 0;
-
+                this.Alpha = 0;
-                // If a leaf, increment the leaf count
+                this.PixelCount = 0;
-                if (this.leaf)
+                this.PaletteIndex = 0;
+                this.NextReducibleIndex = -1;
+
+                // Always clear the Children array.
+                this.Children.Fill(-1);
+
+                if (this.Leaf)
                 {
                     octree.Leaves++;
-                    this.NextReducible = null;
-                    this.children = null;
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    // Otherwise add this to the reducible nodes
+                    // Add this node to the reducible nodes list for its level.
-                    this.NextReducible = octree.ReducibleNodes[level];
+                    this.NextReducibleIndex = octree.reducibleNodes[level];
-                    octree.ReducibleNodes[level] = this;
+                    octree.reducibleNodes[level] = index;
-                    this.children = new OctreeNode[8];
                 }
             }
 
             /// <summary>
-            /// Gets the next reducible node
+            /// Add a color to the Octree.
-            /// </summary>
-            public OctreeNode? NextReducible
-            {
-                [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-                get;
-            }
-
-            /// <summary>
-            /// Add a color into the tree
             /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="nodeIndex">The node index.</param>
             /// <param name="color">The color to add.</param>
-            /// <param name="colorBits">The number of significant color bits.</param>
+            /// <param name="colorBits">The number of significant color bits in the image.</param>
-            /// <param name="level">The level in the tree.</param>
+            /// <param name="level">The level of the node.</param>
-            /// <param name="octree">The tree to which this node belongs.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
-            public void AddColor(ref Rgba32 color, int colorBits, int level, Octree octree)
+            public static void AddColor(int nodeIndex, Rgba32 color, int colorBits, int level, Octree octree)
             {
-                // Update the color information if this is a leaf
+                ref OctreeNode node = ref octree.Nodes[nodeIndex];
-                if (this.leaf)
+                if (node.Leaf)
                 {
-                    this.Increment(ref color);
+                    Increment(nodeIndex, color, octree);
-
+                    octree.TrackPrevious(nodeIndex);
-                    // Setup the previous node
-                    octree.TrackPrevious(this);
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    // Go to the next level down in the tree
+                    int index = GetColorIndex(color, level);
-                    int index = GetColorIndex(ref color, level);
+                    short childIndex;
 
-                    OctreeNode? child = this.children![index];
+                    Span<short> children = node.Children;
-                    if (child is null)
+                    childIndex = children[index];
+
+                    if (childIndex == -1)
                     {
-                        // Create a new child node and store it in the array
+                        childIndex = octree.AllocateNode();
-                        child = new OctreeNode(level + 1, colorBits, octree);
+
-                        this.children[index] = child;
+                        if (childIndex == -1)
+                        {
+                            // No room in the tree, so increment the count and return.
+                            Increment(nodeIndex, color, octree);
+                            octree.TrackPrevious(nodeIndex);
+                            return;
+                        }
+
+                        ref OctreeNode child = ref octree.Nodes[childIndex];
+                        child.Initialize(level + 1, colorBits, octree, childIndex);
+                        children[index] = childIndex;
                     }
 
-                    // Add the color to the child node
+                    AddColor(childIndex, color, colorBits, level + 1, octree);
-                    child.AddColor(ref color, colorBits, level + 1, octree);
                 }
             }
 
             /// <summary>
-            /// Reduce this node by removing all of its children
+            /// Increment the color components of this node.
+            /// </summary>
+            /// <param name="nodeIndex">The node index.</param>
+            /// <param name="color">The color to increment by.</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
+            public static void Increment(int nodeIndex, Rgba32 color, Octree octree)
+            {
+                ref OctreeNode node = ref octree.Nodes[nodeIndex];
+                node.PixelCount++;
+                node.Red += color.R;
+                node.Green += color.G;
+                node.Blue += color.B;
+                node.Alpha += color.A;
+            }
+
+            /// <summary>
+            /// Reduce this node by ensuring its children are all reduced (i.e. leaves) and then merging their data.
             /// </summary>
-            /// <returns>The number of leaves removed</returns>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
-            public int Reduce()
+            public void Reduce(Octree octree)
             {
-                this.red = this.green = this.blue = 0;
+                // If already a leaf, do nothing.
-                int childNodes = 0;
+                if (this.Leaf)
+                {
+                    return;
+                }
 
-                // Loop through all children and add their information to this node
+                // Now merge the (presumably reduced) children.
-                for (int index = 0; index < 8; index++)
+                int pixelCount = 0;
+                int sumRed = 0, sumGreen = 0, sumBlue = 0, sumAlpha = 0;
+                Span<short> children = this.Children;
+                for (int i = 0; i < children.Length; i++)
                 {
-                    OctreeNode? child = this.children![index];
+                    short childIndex = children[i];
-                    if (child != null)
+                    if (childIndex != -1)
                     {
-                        this.red += child.red;
+                        ref OctreeNode child = ref octree.Nodes[childIndex];
-                        this.green += child.green;
+                        int pixels = child.PixelCount;
-                        this.blue += child.blue;
+
-                        this.pixelCount += child.pixelCount;
+                        sumRed += child.Red;
-                        ++childNodes;
+                        sumGreen += child.Green;
-                        this.children[index] = null;
+                        sumBlue += child.Blue;
+                        sumAlpha += child.Alpha;
+                        pixelCount += pixels;
+
+                        // Free the child immediately.
+                        children[i] = -1;
+                        octree.FreeNode(childIndex);
                     }
                 }
 
-                // Now change this to a leaf node
+                if (pixelCount > 0)
-                this.leaf = true;
+                {
+                    this.Red = sumRed;
+                    this.Green = sumGreen;
+                    this.Blue = sumBlue;
+                    this.Alpha = sumAlpha;
+                    this.PixelCount = pixelCount;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    this.Red = this.Green = this.Blue = this.Alpha = 0;
+                    this.PixelCount = 0;
+                }
 
-                // Return the number of nodes to decrement the leaf count by
+                this.Leaf = true;
-                return childNodes - 1;
+                octree.Leaves++;
             }
 
             /// <summary>
-            /// Traverse the tree, building up the color palette
+            /// Traverse the tree to construct the palette.
             /// </summary>
-            /// <param name="palette">The palette</param>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
-            /// <param name="index">The current palette index</param>
+            /// <param name="palette">The palette to construct.</param>
-            [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ColdPath)]
+            /// <param name="paletteIndex">The current palette index.</param>
-            public void ConstructPalette(Span<TPixel> palette, ref int index)
+            public void ConstructPalette(Octree octree, Span<TPixel> palette, ref short paletteIndex)
             {
-                if (this.leaf)
+                if (this.Leaf)
                 {
-                    // Set the color of the palette entry
+                    Vector4 sum = new(this.Red, this.Green, this.Blue, this.Alpha);
-                    Vector3 vector = Vector3.Clamp(
+                    Vector4 offset = new(this.PixelCount >> 1);
-                        new Vector3(this.red, this.green, this.blue) / this.pixelCount,
+                    Vector4 vector = Vector4.Clamp(
-                        Vector3.Zero,
+                        (sum + offset) / this.PixelCount,
-                        new Vector3(255));
+                        Vector4.Zero,
+                        new Vector4(255));
+
+                    if (vector.W < octree.transparencyThreshold255)
+                    {
+                        vector = Vector4.Zero;
+                    }
 
-                    palette[index] = TPixel.FromRgba32(new Rgba32((byte)vector.X, (byte)vector.Y, (byte)vector.Z));
+                    palette[paletteIndex] = TPixel.FromRgba32(new Rgba32((byte)vector.X, (byte)vector.Y, (byte)vector.Z, (byte)vector.W));
 
-                    // Consume the next palette index
+                    this.PaletteIndex = paletteIndex++;
-                    this.paletteIndex = index++;
                 }
                 else
                 {
-                    // Loop through children looking for leaves
+                    Span<short> children = this.Children;
-                    for (int i = 0; i < 8; i++)
+                    for (int i = 0; i < children.Length; i++)
                     {
-                        this.children![i]?.ConstructPalette(palette, ref index);
+                        int childIndex = children[i];
+                        if (childIndex != -1)
+                        {
+                            octree.Nodes[childIndex].ConstructPalette(octree, palette, ref paletteIndex);
+                        }
                     }
                 }
             }
 
             /// <summary>
-            /// Return the palette index for the passed color
+            /// Get the palette index for the passed color.
             /// </summary>
-            /// <param name="pixel">The pixel data.</param>
+            /// <param name="color">The color to get the palette index for.</param>
-            /// <param name="level">The level.</param>
+            /// <param name="level">The level of the node.</param>
-            /// <returns>
+            /// <param name="octree">The parent octree.</param>
-            /// The <see cref="int"/> representing the index of the pixel in the palette.
+            public int GetPaletteIndex(Rgba32 color, int level, Octree octree)
-            /// </returns>
-            [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ColdPath)]
-            public int GetPaletteIndex(ref Rgba32 pixel, int level)
             {
-                if (this.leaf)
+                if (this.Leaf)
                 {
-                    return this.paletteIndex;
+                    return this.PaletteIndex;
                 }
 
-                int colorIndex = GetColorIndex(ref pixel, level);
+                int colorIndex = GetColorIndex(color, level);
-                OctreeNode? child = this.children![colorIndex];
+                Span<short> children = this.Children;
-
+                int childIndex = children[colorIndex];
-                int index = 0;
+                if (childIndex != -1)
-                if (child != null)
                 {
-                    index = child.GetPaletteIndex(ref pixel, level + 1);
+                    return octree.Nodes[childIndex].GetPaletteIndex(color, level + 1, octree);
                 }
-                else
+
+                for (int i = 0; i < children.Length; i++)
                 {
-                    // Check other children.
+                    childIndex = children[i];
-                    for (int i = 0; i < this.children.Length; i++)
+                    if (childIndex != -1)
                     {
-                        child = this.children[i];
+                        int childPaletteIndex = octree.Nodes[childIndex].GetPaletteIndex(color, level + 1, octree);
-                        if (child != null)
+                        if (childPaletteIndex != -1)
                         {
-                            int childIndex = child.GetPaletteIndex(ref pixel, level + 1);
+                            return childPaletteIndex;
-                            if (childIndex != 0)
-                            {
-                                return childIndex;
-                            }
                         }
                     }
                 }
 
-                return index;
+                return -1;
             }
 
             /// <summary>
             /// Gets the color index at the given level.
             /// </summary>
-            /// <param name="color">The color.</param>
+            /// <param name="color">The color to get the index for.</param>
-            /// <param name="level">The node level.</param>
+            /// <param name="level">The level to get the index at.</param>
-            /// <returns>The <see cref="int"/> index.</returns>
+            public static int GetColorIndex(Rgba32 color, int level)
-            [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-            private static int GetColorIndex(ref Rgba32 color, int level)
             {
+                // Determine how many bits to shift based on the current tree level.
+                // At level 0, shift = 7; as level increases, the shift decreases.
                 int shift = 7 - level;
                 byte mask = (byte)(1 << shift);
 
-                return ((color.R & mask) >> shift)
+                // Compute the luminance of the RGB components using the BT.709 standard.
-                    | (((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1)
+                // This gives a measure of brightness for the color.
-                    | (((color.B & mask) >> shift) << 2);
+                int luminance = ColorNumerics.Get8BitBT709Luminance(color.R, color.G, color.B);
-            }
 
-            /// <summary>
+                // Define thresholds for determining when to include the alpha bit in the index.
-            /// Increment the color count and add to the color information
+                // The thresholds are scaled according to the current level.
-            /// </summary>
+                // 128 is the midpoint of the 8-bit range (0–255), so shifting it right by 'level'
-            /// <param name="color">The pixel to add.</param>
+                // produces a threshold that scales with the color cube subdivision.
-            [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+                int darkThreshold = 128 >> level;
-            public void Increment(ref Rgba32 color)
+
-            {
+                // The light threshold is set symmetrically: 255 minus the scaled midpoint.
-                this.pixelCount++;
+                int lightThreshold = 255 - (128 >> level);
-                this.red += color.R;
+
-                this.green += color.G;
+                // If the pixel is fully opaque and its brightness falls between the dark and light thresholds,
-                this.blue += color.B;
+                // ignore the alpha channel to maximize RGB resolution.
+                // Otherwise (if the pixel is dark, light, or semi-transparent), include the alpha bit
+                // to preserve any gradient that may be present.
+                if (color.A == 255 && luminance > darkThreshold && luminance < lightThreshold)
+                {
+                    // Extract one bit each from R, G, and B channels and combine them into a 3-bit index.
+                    int rBits = ((color.R & mask) >> shift) << 2;
+                    int gBits = ((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1;
+                    int bBits = (color.B & mask) >> shift;
+                    return rBits | gBits | bBits;
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    // Extract one bit from each channel including alpha (alpha becomes the most significant bit).
+                    int aBits = ((color.A & mask) >> shift) << 3;
+                    int rBits = ((color.R & mask) >> shift) << 2;
+                    int gBits = ((color.G & mask) >> shift) << 1;
+                    int bBits = (color.B & mask) >> shift;
+                    return aBits | rBits | gBits | bBits;
+                }
             }
         }
     }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer.cs

@@ -11,7 +11,8 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 public class PaletteQuantizer : IQuantizer
 {
     private readonly ReadOnlyMemory<Color> colorPalette;
-    private readonly int transparentIndex;
+    private readonly int transparencyIndex;
+    private readonly Color transparentColor;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer"/> class.
@@ -25,27 +26,33 @@ public class PaletteQuantizer : IQuantizer
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer"/> class.
     /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to use.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
     public PaletteQuantizer(ReadOnlyMemory<Color> palette, QuantizerOptions options)
-        : this(palette, options, -1)
+        : this(palette, options, -1, default)
     {
     }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer"/> class.
     /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="palette">The color palette.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">The color palette to use.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
-    /// <param name="transparentIndex">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparencyIndex">The index of the color in the palette that should be considered as transparent.</param>
-    internal PaletteQuantizer(ReadOnlyMemory<Color> palette, QuantizerOptions options, int transparentIndex)
+    /// <param name="transparentColor">The color that should be considered as transparent.</param>
+    internal PaletteQuantizer(
+        ReadOnlyMemory<Color> palette,
+        QuantizerOptions options,
+        int transparencyIndex,
+        Color transparentColor)
     {
         Guard.MustBeGreaterThan(palette.Length, 0, nameof(palette));
         Guard.NotNull(options, nameof(options));
 
         this.colorPalette = palette;
         this.Options = options;
-        this.transparentIndex = transparentIndex;
+        this.transparencyIndex = transparencyIndex;
+        this.transparentColor = transparentColor;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc />
@@ -66,6 +73,6 @@ public class PaletteQuantizer : IQuantizer
         // treat the buffer as FILO.
         TPixel[] palette = new TPixel[Math.Min(options.MaxColors, this.colorPalette.Length)];
         Color.ToPixel(this.colorPalette.Span[..palette.Length], palette.AsSpan());
-        return new PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>(configuration, options, palette, this.transparentIndex);
+        return new PaletteQuantizer<TPixel>(configuration, options, palette, this.transparencyIndex, this.transparentColor.ToPixel<TPixel>());
     }
 }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}.cs

@@ -17,10 +17,12 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
     "Design",
     "CA1001:Types that own disposable fields should be disposable",
     Justification = "https://github.com/dotnet/roslyn-analyzers/issues/6151")]
-internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
+internal struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
 {
-    private readonly EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel> pixelMap;
+    private readonly PixelMap<TPixel> pixelMap;
+    private int transparencyIndex;
+    private TPixel transparentColor;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}"/> struct.
@@ -28,20 +30,37 @@ internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
     /// <param name="palette">The palette to use.</param>
-    /// <param name="transparentIndex">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public PaletteQuantizer(Configuration configuration, QuantizerOptions options, ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
+        : this(configuration, options, palette, -1, default)
+    {
+        Guard.NotNull(configuration, nameof(configuration));
+        Guard.NotNull(options, nameof(options));
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="PaletteQuantizer{TPixel}"/> struct.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.</param>
+    /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
+    /// <param name="palette">The palette to use.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparencyIndex">The index of the color in the palette that should be considered as transparent.</param>
+    /// <param name="transparentColor">The color that should be considered as transparent.</param>
     public PaletteQuantizer(
         Configuration configuration,
         QuantizerOptions options,
         ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette,
-        int transparentIndex)
+        int transparencyIndex,
+        TPixel transparentColor)
     {
         Guard.NotNull(configuration, nameof(configuration));
         Guard.NotNull(options, nameof(options));
 
         this.Configuration = configuration;
         this.Options = options;
-        this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(configuration, palette, transparentIndex);
+        this.pixelMap = PixelMapFactory.Create(this.Configuration, palette, options.ColorMatchingMode);
+        this.transparencyIndex = transparencyIndex;
+        this.transparentColor = transparentColor;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -51,7 +70,13 @@ internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette => this.pixelMap.Palette;
+    public readonly ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette => this.pixelMap.Palette;
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    public readonly void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    {
+    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
@@ -60,21 +85,23 @@ internal readonly struct PaletteQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
-    public void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    public readonly byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
     {
-    }
+        if (this.transparencyIndex >= 0 && color.Equals(this.transparentColor))
+        {
+            match = this.transparentColor;
+            return (byte)this.transparencyIndex;
+        }
 
-    /// <summary>
+        return (byte)this.pixelMap.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
-    /// Allows setting the transparent index after construction.
+    }
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="index">An explicit index at which to match transparent pixels.</param>
-    public void SetTransparentIndex(int index) => this.pixelMap.SetTransparentIndex(index);
 
-    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public void SetTransparencyIndex(int transparencyIndex, TPixel transparentColor)
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
+    {
-    public readonly byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
+        this.transparencyIndex = transparencyIndex;
-        => (byte)this.pixelMap.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
+        this.transparentColor = transparentColor;
+    }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public void Dispose() => this.pixelMap.Dispose();
+    public readonly void Dispose() => this.pixelMap.Dispose();
 }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerConstants.cs

@@ -21,15 +21,30 @@ public static class QuantizerConstants
     public const int MaxColors = 256;
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// The minumim dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
+    /// The minimum dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
     /// </summary>
     public const float MinDitherScale = 0;
 
     /// <summary>
-    /// The max dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
+    /// The maximum dithering scale used to adjust the amount of dither.
     /// </summary>
     public const float MaxDitherScale = 1F;
 
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The default threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent.
+    /// </summary>
+    public const float DefaultTransparencyThreshold = 64 / 255F;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The minimum threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent.
+    /// </summary>
+    public const float MinTransparencyThreshold = 0F;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// The maximum threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent.
+    /// </summary>
+    public const float MaxTransparencyThreshold = 1F;
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets the default dithering algorithm to use.
     /// </summary>

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerOptions.cs

@@ -1,6 +1,7 @@
 // Copyright (c) Six Labors.
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Dithering;
 
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
@@ -8,10 +9,34 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 /// <summary>
 /// Defines options for quantization.
 /// </summary>
-public class QuantizerOptions
+public class QuantizerOptions : IDeepCloneable<QuantizerOptions>
 {
+#pragma warning disable IDE0032 // Use auto property
     private float ditherScale = QuantizerConstants.MaxDitherScale;
     private int maxColors = QuantizerConstants.MaxColors;
+    private float threshold = QuantizerConstants.DefaultTransparencyThreshold;
+#pragma warning restore IDE0032 // Use auto property
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="QuantizerOptions"/> class.
+    /// </summary>
+    public QuantizerOptions()
+    {
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="QuantizerOptions"/> class.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="options">The options to clone.</param>
+    private QuantizerOptions(QuantizerOptions options)
+    {
+        this.Dither = options.Dither;
+        this.DitherScale = options.DitherScale;
+        this.MaxColors = options.MaxColors;
+        this.TransparencyThreshold = options.TransparencyThreshold;
+        this.ColorMatchingMode = options.ColorMatchingMode;
+        this.TransparentColorMode = options.TransparentColorMode;
+    }
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Gets or sets the  algorithm to apply to the output image.
@@ -38,4 +63,30 @@ public class QuantizerOptions
         get => this.maxColors;
         set => this.maxColors = Numerics.Clamp(value, QuantizerConstants.MinColors, QuantizerConstants.MaxColors);
     }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Gets or sets the color matching mode used for matching pixel values to palette colors.
+    /// Defaults to <see cref="ColorMatchingMode.Coarse"/>.
+    /// </summary>
+    public ColorMatchingMode ColorMatchingMode { get; set; } = ColorMatchingMode.Coarse;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Gets or sets the threshold at which to consider a pixel transparent. Range 0..1.
+    /// Defaults to <see cref="QuantizerConstants.DefaultTransparencyThreshold"/>.
+    /// </summary>
+    public float TransparencyThreshold
+    {
+        get => this.threshold;
+        set => this.threshold = Numerics.Clamp(value, QuantizerConstants.MinTransparencyThreshold, QuantizerConstants.MaxTransparencyThreshold);
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Gets or sets the transparent color mode used for handling transparent colors
+    /// when not using thresholding.
+    /// Defaults to <see cref="TransparentColorMode.Preserve"/>.
+    /// </summary>
+    public TransparentColorMode TransparentColorMode { get; set; } = TransparentColorMode.Preserve;
+
+    /// <inheritdoc/>
+    public QuantizerOptions DeepClone() => new(this);
 }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/QuantizerUtilities.cs

@@ -1,7 +1,11 @@
 // Copyright (c) Six Labors.
 // Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
 
+using System.Buffers;
+using System.Numerics;
 using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
+using System.Runtime.InteropServices;
+using System.Runtime.Intrinsics;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Memory;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
@@ -14,6 +18,130 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 /// </summary>
 public static class QuantizerUtilities
 {
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Performs a deep clone the <see cref="QuantizerOptions"/> instance and optionally mutates the clone.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="options">The <see cref="QuantizerOptions"/> instance to clone.</param>
+    /// <param name="mutate">An optional delegate to mutate the cloned instance.</param>
+    /// <returns>The cloned <see cref="QuantizerOptions"/> instance.</returns>
+    public static QuantizerOptions DeepClone(this QuantizerOptions options, Action<QuantizerOptions>? mutate)
+    {
+        QuantizerOptions clone = options.DeepClone();
+        mutate?.Invoke(clone);
+        return clone;
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Determines if transparent pixels can be replaced based on the specified color mode and pixel type.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The type of the pixel.</typeparam>
+    /// <param name="threshold">The alpha threshold used to determine if a pixel is transparent.</param>
+    /// <returns>Returns true if transparent pixels can be replaced; otherwise, false.</returns>
+    public static bool ShouldReplacePixelsByAlphaThreshold<TPixel>(float threshold)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+        => threshold > 0 && TPixel.GetPixelTypeInfo().AlphaRepresentation == PixelAlphaRepresentation.Unassociated;
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Replaces pixels in a span with fully transparent pixels based on an alpha threshold.
+    /// </summary>
+    /// <param name="source">A span of color vectors that will be checked for transparency and potentially modified.</param>
+    /// <param name="threshold">The alpha threshold used to determine if a pixel is transparent.</param>
+    public static void ReplacePixelsByAlphaThreshold(Span<Vector4> source, float threshold)
+    {
+        if (Vector512.IsHardwareAccelerated && source.Length >= 4)
+        {
+            Vector512<float> threshold512 = Vector512.Create(threshold);
+            Span<Vector512<float>> source512 = MemoryMarshal.Cast<Vector4, Vector512<float>>(source);
+            for (int i = 0; i < source512.Length; i++)
+            {
+                ref Vector512<float> v = ref source512[i];
+
+                // Do `vector < threshold`
+                Vector512<float> mask = Vector512.LessThan(v, threshold512);
+
+                // Replicate the result for W to all elements (is AllBitsSet if the W was less than threshold and Zero otherwise)
+                mask = Vector512.Shuffle(mask, Vector512.Create(3, 3, 3, 3, 7, 7, 7, 7, 11, 11, 11, 11, 15, 15, 15, 15));
+
+                // Use the mask to select the replacement vector
+                // (replacement & mask) | (v512 & ~mask)
+                v = Vector512.ConditionalSelect(mask, Vector512<float>.Zero, v);
+            }
+
+            int m = Numerics.Modulo4(source.Length);
+            if (m != 0)
+            {
+                for (int i = source.Length - m; i < source.Length; i++)
+                {
+                    if (source[i].W < threshold)
+                    {
+                        source[i] = Vector4.Zero;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        else if (Vector256.IsHardwareAccelerated && source.Length >= 2)
+        {
+            Vector256<float> threshold256 = Vector256.Create(threshold);
+            Span<Vector256<float>> source256 = MemoryMarshal.Cast<Vector4, Vector256<float>>(source);
+            for (int i = 0; i < source256.Length; i++)
+            {
+                ref Vector256<float> v = ref source256[i];
+
+                // Do `vector < threshold`
+                Vector256<float> mask = Vector256.LessThan(v, threshold256);
+
+                // Replicate the result for W to all elements (is AllBitsSet if the W was less than threshold and Zero otherwise)
+                mask = Vector256.Shuffle(mask, Vector256.Create(3, 3, 3, 3, 7, 7, 7, 7));
+
+                // Use the mask to select the replacement vector
+                // (replacement & mask) | (v256 & ~mask)
+                v = Vector256.ConditionalSelect(mask, Vector256<float>.Zero, v);
+            }
+
+            int m = Numerics.Modulo2(source.Length);
+            if (m != 0)
+            {
+                for (int i = source.Length - m; i < source.Length; i++)
+                {
+                    if (source[i].W < threshold)
+                    {
+                        source[i] = Vector4.Zero;
+                    }
+                }
+            }
+        }
+        else if (Vector128.IsHardwareAccelerated)
+        {
+            Vector128<float> threshold128 = Vector128.Create(threshold);
+
+            for (int i = 0; i < source.Length; i++)
+            {
+                ref Vector4 v = ref source[i];
+                Vector128<float> v128 = v.AsVector128();
+
+                // Do `vector < threshold`
+                Vector128<float> mask = Vector128.LessThan(v128, threshold128);
+
+                // Replicate the result for W to all elements (is AllBitsSet if the W was less than threshold and Zero otherwise)
+                mask = Vector128.Shuffle(mask, Vector128.Create(3, 3, 3, 3));
+
+                // Use the mask to select the replacement vector
+                // (replacement & mask) | (v128 & ~mask)
+                v = Vector128.ConditionalSelect(mask, Vector128<float>.Zero, v128).AsVector4();
+            }
+        }
+        else
+        {
+            for (int i = 0; i < source.Length; i++)
+            {
+                if (source[i].W < threshold)
+                {
+                    source[i] = Vector4.Zero;
+                }
+            }
+        }
+    }
+
     /// <summary>
     /// Helper method for throwing an exception when a frame quantizer palette has
     /// been requested but not built yet.
@@ -21,12 +149,13 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
     /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
     /// <param name="palette">The frame quantizer palette.</param>
     /// <exception cref="InvalidOperationException">
-    /// The palette has not been built via <see cref="IQuantizer{TPixel}.AddPaletteColors"/>
+    /// The palette has not been built via <see cref="IQuantizer{TPixel}.AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion{TPixel})"/>
     /// </exception>
+    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ColdPath)]
     public static void CheckPaletteState<TPixel>(in ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        if (palette.Equals(default))
+        if (palette.IsEmpty)
         {
             throw new InvalidOperationException("Frame Quantizer palette has not been built.");
         }
@@ -54,8 +183,7 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
         Rectangle interest = Rectangle.Intersect(source.Bounds, bounds);
         Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region = source.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(interest);
 
-        // Collect the palette. Required before the second pass runs.
+        quantizer.AddPaletteColors(in region);
-        quantizer.AddPaletteColors(region);
         return quantizer.QuantizeFrame(source, bounds);
     }
 
@@ -112,39 +240,10 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
         IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
         Image<TPixel> source)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-        => quantizer.BuildPalette(source.Configuration, TransparentColorMode.Preserve, pixelSamplingStrategy, source);
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// Adds colors to the quantized palette from the given pixel regions.
-    /// </summary>
-    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
-    /// <param name="quantizer">The pixel specific quantizer.</param>
-    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="mode">The transparent color mode.</param>
-    /// <param name="pixelSamplingStrategy">The pixel sampling strategy.</param>
-    /// <param name="source">The source image to sample from.</param>
-    public static void BuildPalette<TPixel>(
-        this IQuantizer<TPixel> quantizer,
-        Configuration configuration,
-        TransparentColorMode mode,
-        IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
-        Image<TPixel> source)
-        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(mode))
+        foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
-        {
-            foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
-            {
-                using Buffer2D<TPixel> clone = region.Buffer.CloneRegion(configuration, region.Rectangle);
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(clone.GetRegion());
-            }
-        }
-        else
         {
-            foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
+            quantizer.AddPaletteColors(in region);
-            {
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(region);
-            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -160,43 +259,75 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
         IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> source)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
-        => quantizer.BuildPalette(source.Configuration, TransparentColorMode.Preserve, pixelSamplingStrategy, source);
+    {
+        foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
+        {
+            quantizer.AddPaletteColors(in region);
+        }
+    }
 
-    /// <summary>
+    internal static void AddPaletteColors<TFrameQuantizer, TPixel, TPixel2, TDelegate>(
-    /// Adds colors to the quantized palette from the given pixel regions.
+        ref TFrameQuantizer quantizer,
-    /// </summary>
+        in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> source,
-    /// <typeparam name="TPixel">The pixel format.</typeparam>
+        in TDelegate rowDelegate)
-    /// <param name="quantizer">The pixel specific quantizer.</param>
+        where TFrameQuantizer : struct, IQuantizer<TPixel>
-    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration.</param>
-    /// <param name="mode">The transparent color mode.</param>
-    /// <param name="pixelSamplingStrategy">The pixel sampling strategy.</param>
-    /// <param name="source">The source image frame to sample from.</param>
-    public static void BuildPalette<TPixel>(
-        this IQuantizer<TPixel> quantizer,
-        Configuration configuration,
-        TransparentColorMode mode,
-        IPixelSamplingStrategy pixelSamplingStrategy,
-        ImageFrame<TPixel> source)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+        where TPixel2 : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel2>
+        where TDelegate : struct, IQuantizingPixelRowDelegate<TPixel2>
     {
-        if (EncodingUtilities.ShouldClearTransparentPixels<TPixel>(mode))
+        Configuration configuration = quantizer.Configuration;
+        float threshold = quantizer.Options.TransparencyThreshold;
+        TransparentColorMode mode = quantizer.Options.TransparentColorMode;
+
+        using IMemoryOwner<TPixel2> delegateRowOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<TPixel2>(source.Width);
+        Span<TPixel2> delegateRow = delegateRowOwner.Memory.Span;
+
+        bool replaceByThreshold = ShouldReplacePixelsByAlphaThreshold<TPixel>(threshold);
+        bool replaceTransparent = EncodingUtilities.ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(mode);
+
+        if (replaceByThreshold || replaceTransparent)
         {
-            foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
+            using IMemoryOwner<Vector4> vectorRowOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Vector4>(source.Width);
+            Span<Vector4> vectorRow = vectorRowOwner.Memory.Span;
+
+            if (replaceByThreshold)
             {
-                using Buffer2D<TPixel> clone = region.Buffer.CloneRegion(configuration, region.Rectangle);
+                for (int y = 0; y < source.Height; y++)
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(clone.GetRegion());
+                {
+                    Span<TPixel> sourceRow = source.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, sourceRow, vectorRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                    ReplacePixelsByAlphaThreshold(vectorRow, threshold);
+
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel2>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorRow, delegateRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+                    rowDelegate.Invoke(delegateRow, y);
+                }
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                for (int y = 0; y < source.Height; y++)
+                {
+                    Span<TPixel> sourceRow = source.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, sourceRow, vectorRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                    EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(vectorRow);
+
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel2>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorRow, delegateRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+                    rowDelegate.Invoke(delegateRow, y);
+                }
             }
         }
         else
         {
-            foreach (Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region in pixelSamplingStrategy.EnumeratePixelRegions(source))
+            for (int y = 0; y < source.Height; y++)
             {
-                quantizer.AddPaletteColors(region);
+                Span<TPixel> sourceRow = source.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+                PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.To(configuration, sourceRow, delegateRow);
+                rowDelegate.Invoke(delegateRow, y);
             }
         }
     }
 
-    [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
     private static void SecondPass<TFrameQuantizer, TPixel>(
         ref TFrameQuantizer quantizer,
         ImageFrame<TPixel> source,
@@ -205,28 +336,111 @@ public static class QuantizerUtilities
         where TFrameQuantizer : struct, IQuantizer<TPixel>
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
+        float threshold = quantizer.Options.TransparencyThreshold;
+        bool replaceByThreshold = ShouldReplacePixelsByAlphaThreshold<TPixel>(threshold);
+
+        TransparentColorMode mode = quantizer.Options.TransparentColorMode;
+        bool replaceTransparent = EncodingUtilities.ShouldReplaceTransparentPixels<TPixel>(mode);
+
         IDither? dither = quantizer.Options.Dither;
         Buffer2D<TPixel> sourceBuffer = source.PixelBuffer;
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> region = sourceBuffer.GetRegion(bounds);
+
+        Configuration configuration = quantizer.Configuration;
+        using IMemoryOwner<Vector4> vectorOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<Vector4>(region.Width);
+        Span<Vector4> vectorRow = vectorOwner.Memory.Span;
 
         if (dither is null)
         {
-            int offsetY = bounds.Top;
+            using IMemoryOwner<TPixel> quantizingRowOwner = configuration.MemoryAllocator.Allocate<TPixel>(region.Width);
-            int offsetX = bounds.Left;
+            Span<TPixel> quantizingRow = quantizingRowOwner.Memory.Span;
+
+            // This is NOT a clone so we DO NOT write back to the source.
+            if (replaceByThreshold || replaceTransparent)
+            {
+                if (replaceByThreshold)
+                {
+                    for (int y = 0; y < region.Height; y++)
+                    {
+                        Span<TPixel> sourceRow = region.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+                        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, sourceRow, vectorRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                        ReplacePixelsByAlphaThreshold(vectorRow, threshold);
+
+                        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorRow, quantizingRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                        Span<byte> destinationRow = destination.GetWritablePixelRowSpanUnsafe(y);
+                        for (int x = 0; x < destinationRow.Length; x++)
+                        {
+                            destinationRow[x] = quantizer.GetQuantizedColor(quantizingRow[x], out TPixel _);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
+                else
+                {
+                    for (int y = 0; y < region.Height; y++)
+                    {
+                        Span<TPixel> sourceRow = region.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+                        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, sourceRow, vectorRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                        EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(vectorRow);
+
+                        PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorRow, quantizingRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                        Span<byte> destinationRow = destination.GetWritablePixelRowSpanUnsafe(y);
+                        for (int x = 0; x < destinationRow.Length; x++)
+                        {
+                            destinationRow[x] = quantizer.GetQuantizedColor(quantizingRow[x], out TPixel _);
+                        }
+                    }
+                }
 
-            for (int y = 0; y < destination.Height; y++)
+                return;
+            }
+
+            for (int y = 0; y < region.Height; y++)
             {
-                ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> sourceRow = sourceBuffer.DangerousGetRowSpan(y + offsetY);
+                ReadOnlySpan<TPixel> sourceRow = region.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
                 Span<byte> destinationRow = destination.GetWritablePixelRowSpanUnsafe(y);
 
                 for (int x = 0; x < destinationRow.Length; x++)
                 {
-                    destinationRow[x] = Unsafe.AsRef(in quantizer).GetQuantizedColor(sourceRow[x + offsetX], out TPixel _);
+                    destinationRow[x] = quantizer.GetQuantizedColor(sourceRow[x], out TPixel _);
                 }
             }
 
             return;
         }
 
+        // This is a clone so we write back to the source.
+        if (replaceByThreshold || replaceTransparent)
+        {
+            if (replaceByThreshold)
+            {
+                for (int y = 0; y < region.Height; y++)
+                {
+                    Span<TPixel> sourceRow = region.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, sourceRow, vectorRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                    ReplacePixelsByAlphaThreshold(vectorRow, threshold);
+
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorRow, sourceRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+                }
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                for (int y = 0; y < region.Height; y++)
+                {
+                    Span<TPixel> sourceRow = region.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToVector4(configuration, sourceRow, vectorRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+
+                    EncodingUtilities.ReplaceTransparentPixels(vectorRow);
+
+                    PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromVector4Destructive(configuration, vectorRow, sourceRow, PixelConversionModifiers.Scale);
+                }
+            }
+        }
+
         dither.ApplyQuantizationDither(ref quantizer, source, destination, bounds);
     }
 }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/WebSafePaletteQuantizer.cs

@@ -6,7 +6,7 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 /// <summary>
 /// A palette quantizer consisting of web safe colors as defined in the CSS Color Module Level 4.
 /// </summary>
-public class WebSafePaletteQuantizer : PaletteQuantizer
+public sealed class WebSafePaletteQuantizer : PaletteQuantizer
 {
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="WebSafePaletteQuantizer" /> class.

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/WernerPaletteQuantizer.cs

@@ -7,7 +7,7 @@ namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 /// A palette quantizer consisting of colors as defined in the original second edition of Werner’s Nomenclature of Colours 1821.
 /// The hex codes were collected and defined by Nicholas Rougeux <see href="https://www.c82.net/werner"/>
 /// </summary>
-public class WernerPaletteQuantizer : PaletteQuantizer
+public sealed class WernerPaletteQuantizer : PaletteQuantizer
 {
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="WernerPaletteQuantizer" /> class.

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Quantization/WuQuantizer{TPixel}.cs

@@ -43,30 +43,10 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     // The following two variables determine the amount of bits to preserve when calculating the histogram.
     // Reducing the value of these numbers the granularity of the color maps produced, making it much faster
     // and using much less memory but potentially less accurate. Current results are very good though!
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// The index bits. 6 in original code.
-    /// </summary>
     private const int IndexBits = 5;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// The index alpha bits. 3 in original code.
-    /// </summary>
     private const int IndexAlphaBits = 5;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// The index count.
-    /// </summary>
     private const int IndexCount = (1 << IndexBits) + 1;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// The index alpha count.
-    /// </summary>
     private const int IndexAlphaCount = (1 << IndexAlphaBits) + 1;
-
-    /// <summary>
-    /// The table length. Now 1185921. originally 2471625.
-    /// </summary>
     private const int TableLength = IndexCount * IndexCount * IndexCount * IndexAlphaCount;
 
     private readonly IMemoryOwner<Moment> momentsOwner;
@@ -75,14 +55,14 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     private ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> palette;
     private int maxColors;
     private readonly Box[] colorCube;
-    private EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>? pixelMap;
+    private PixelMap<TPixel>? pixelMap;
     private readonly bool isDithering;
     private bool isDisposed;
 
     /// <summary>
     /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="WuQuantizer{TPixel}"/> struct.
     /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behaviour or extending the library.</param>
+    /// <param name="configuration">The configuration which allows altering default behavior or extending the library.</param>
     /// <param name="options">The quantizer options defining quantization rules.</param>
     [MethodImpl(InliningOptions.ShortMethod)]
     public WuQuantizer(Configuration configuration, QuantizerOptions options)
@@ -101,7 +81,7 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         this.isDisposed = false;
         this.pixelMap = default;
         this.palette = default;
-        this.isDithering = this.isDithering = this.Options.Dither is not null;
+        this.isDithering = this.Options.Dither is not null;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -111,57 +91,71 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     public QuantizerOptions Options { get; }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public readonly ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
+    public ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> Palette
     {
         get
         {
-            QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            if (this.palette.IsEmpty)
+            {
+                this.ResolvePalette();
+                QuantizerUtilities.CheckPaletteState(in this.palette);
+            }
+
             return this.palette;
         }
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
-    public void AddPaletteColors(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    public readonly void AddPaletteColors(in Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> pixelRegion)
+    {
+        PixelRowDelegate pixelRowDelegate = new(ref Unsafe.AsRef(in this));
+        QuantizerUtilities.AddPaletteColors<WuQuantizer<TPixel>, TPixel, Rgba32, PixelRowDelegate>(
+            ref Unsafe.AsRef(in this),
+            in pixelRegion,
+            in pixelRowDelegate);
+    }
+
+    /// <summary>
+    /// Once all histogram data has been accumulated, this method computes the moments,
+    /// splits the color cube, and resolves the final palette from the accumulated histogram.
+    /// </summary>
+    private void ResolvePalette()
     {
-        // TODO: Something is destroying the existing palette when adding new colors.
+        // Calculate the cumulative moments from the accumulated histogram.
-        // When the QuantizingImageEncoder.PixelSamplingStrategy is DefaultPixelSamplingStrategy
-        // this leads to performance issues + the palette is not preserved.
-        // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2498
-        this.Build3DHistogram(pixelRegion);
         this.Get3DMoments(this.memoryAllocator);
+
+        // Partition the histogram into color cubes.
         this.BuildCube();
 
-        // Slice again since maxColors has been updated since the buffer was created.
+        // Compute the palette colors from the resolved cubes.
         Span<TPixel> paletteSpan = this.paletteOwner.GetSpan()[..this.maxColors];
         ReadOnlySpan<Moment> momentsSpan = this.momentsOwner.GetSpan();
+
+        float transparencyThreshold = this.Options.TransparencyThreshold;
         for (int k = 0; k < paletteSpan.Length; k++)
         {
             this.Mark(ref this.colorCube[k], (byte)k);
-
             Moment moment = Volume(ref this.colorCube[k], momentsSpan);
-
             if (moment.Weight > 0)
             {
-                paletteSpan[k] = TPixel.FromScaledVector4(moment.Normalize());
+                Vector4 normalized = moment.Normalize();
+                if (normalized.W < transparencyThreshold)
+                {
+                    normalized = Vector4.Zero;
+                }
+
+                paletteSpan[k] = TPixel.FromScaledVector4(normalized);
             }
         }
 
-        ReadOnlyMemory<TPixel> result = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..paletteSpan.Length];
+        // Update the palette to the new computed colors.
-        if (this.isDithering)
+        this.palette = this.paletteOwner.Memory[..paletteSpan.Length];
+
+        // Create the pixel map if dithering is enabled.
+        if (this.isDithering && this.pixelMap is null)
         {
-            // When called multiple times by QuantizerUtilities.BuildPalette
+            this.pixelMap = PixelMapFactory.Create(this.Configuration, this.palette, this.Options.ColorMatchingMode);
-            // this prevents memory churn caused by reallocation.
-            if (this.pixelMap is null)
-            {
-                this.pixelMap = new EuclideanPixelMap<TPixel>(this.Configuration, result);
-            }
-            else
-            {
-                this.pixelMap.Clear(result);
-            }
         }
-
-        this.palette = result;
     }
 
     /// <inheritdoc/>
@@ -172,6 +166,9 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     /// <inheritdoc/>
     public readonly byte GetQuantizedColor(TPixel color, out TPixel match)
     {
+        // Due to the addition of new colors by dithering that are not part of the original histogram,
+        // the color cube might not match the correct color.
+        // In this case, we must use the pixel map to get the closest color.
         if (this.isDithering)
         {
             return (byte)this.pixelMap!.GetClosestColor(color, out match);
@@ -188,7 +185,7 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
         ReadOnlySpan<byte> tagSpan = this.tagsOwner.GetSpan();
         byte index = tagSpan[GetPaletteIndex(r + 1, g + 1, b + 1, a + 1)];
         ref TPixel paletteRef = ref MemoryMarshal.GetReference(this.palette.Span);
-        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, index);
+        match = Unsafe.Add(ref paletteRef, (nuint)index);
         return index;
     }
 
@@ -359,31 +356,19 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
     /// <summary>
     /// Builds a 3-D color histogram of <c>counts, r/g/b, c^2</c>.
     /// </summary>
-    /// <param name="source">The source pixel data.</param>
+    /// <param name="pixels">The source pixel data.</param>
-    private readonly void Build3DHistogram(Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> source)
+    private readonly void Build3DHistogram(ReadOnlySpan<Rgba32> pixels)
     {
-        Span<Moment> momentSpan = this.momentsOwner.GetSpan();
+        Span<Moment> moments = this.momentsOwner.GetSpan();
-
+        for (int x = 0; x < pixels.Length; x++)
-        // Build up the 3-D color histogram
-        using IMemoryOwner<Rgba32> buffer = this.memoryAllocator.Allocate<Rgba32>(source.Width);
-        Span<Rgba32> bufferSpan = buffer.GetSpan();
-
-        for (int y = 0; y < source.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<TPixel> row = source.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
+            Rgba32 rgba = pixels[x];
-            PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.ToRgba32(this.Configuration, row, bufferSpan);
+            int r = (rgba.R >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
-
+            int g = (rgba.G >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
-            for (int x = 0; x < bufferSpan.Length; x++)
+            int b = (rgba.B >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
-            {
+            int a = (rgba.A >> (8 - IndexAlphaBits)) + 1;
-                Rgba32 rgba = bufferSpan[x];
-
-                int r = (rgba.R >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
-                int g = (rgba.G >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
-                int b = (rgba.B >> (8 - IndexBits)) + 1;
-                int a = (rgba.A >> (8 - IndexAlphaBits)) + 1;
 
-                momentSpan[GetPaletteIndex(r, g, b, a)] += rgba;
+            moments[GetPaletteIndex(r, g, b, a)] += rgba;
-            }
         }
     }
 
@@ -895,4 +880,13 @@ internal struct WuQuantizer<TPixel> : IQuantizer<TPixel>
             return hash.ToHashCode();
         }
     }
+
+    private readonly struct PixelRowDelegate : IQuantizingPixelRowDelegate<Rgba32>
+    {
+        private readonly WuQuantizer<TPixel> quantizer;
+
+        public PixelRowDelegate(ref WuQuantizer<TPixel> quantizer) => this.quantizer = quantizer;
+
+        public void Invoke(ReadOnlySpan<Rgba32> row, int rowIndex) => this.quantizer.Build3DHistogram(row);
+    }
 }

src/ImageSharp/Processing/Processors/Transforms/TransformProcessor{TPixel}.cs

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
 
+// TODO: DO we need this class?
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Transforms;
 
 /// <summary>
@@ -22,18 +23,4 @@ internal abstract class TransformProcessor<TPixel> : CloningImageProcessor<TPixe
         : base(configuration, source, sourceRectangle)
     {
     }
-
-    /// <inheritdoc/>
-    protected override void AfterFrameApply(ImageFrame<TPixel> source, ImageFrame<TPixel> destination)
-    {
-        base.AfterFrameApply(source, destination);
-        destination.Metadata.AfterFrameApply(source, destination);
-    }
-
-    /// <inheritdoc/>
-    protected override void AfterImageApply(Image<TPixel> destination)
-    {
-        base.AfterImageApply(destination);
-        destination.Metadata.AfterImageApply(destination);
-    }
 }

tests/ImageSharp.Benchmarks/Codecs/Gif/DecodeEncodeGif.cs

@@ -0,0 +1,59 @@
+// Copyright (c) Six Labors.
+// Licensed under the Six Labors Split License.
+
+using System.Drawing.Imaging;
+using BenchmarkDotNet.Attributes;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Gif;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Tests;
+using SDImage = System.Drawing.Image;
+
+namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Benchmarks.Codecs;
+
+public abstract class DecodeEncodeGif
+{
+    private MemoryStream outputStream;
+
+    protected abstract GifEncoder Encoder { get; }
+
+    [Params(TestImages.Gif.Leo, TestImages.Gif.Cheers)]
+    public string TestImage { get; set; }
+
+    private string TestImageFullPath => Path.Combine(TestEnvironment.InputImagesDirectoryFullPath, this.TestImage);
+
+    [GlobalSetup]
+    public void Setup() => this.outputStream = new MemoryStream();
+
+    [GlobalCleanup]
+    public void Cleanup() => this.outputStream.Close();
+
+    [Benchmark(Baseline = true)]
+    public void SystemDrawing()
+    {
+        this.outputStream.Position = 0;
+        using SDImage image = SDImage.FromFile(this.TestImageFullPath);
+        image.Save(this.outputStream, ImageFormat.Gif);
+    }
+
+    [Benchmark]
+    public void ImageSharp()
+    {
+        this.outputStream.Position = 0;
+        using Image image = Image.Load(this.TestImageFullPath);
+        image.SaveAsGif(this.outputStream, this.Encoder);
+    }
+}
+
+public class DecodeEncodeGif_DefaultEncoder : DecodeEncodeGif
+{
+    protected override GifEncoder Encoder => new();
+}
+
+public class DecodeEncodeGif_CoarsePaletteEncoder : DecodeEncodeGif
+{
+    protected override GifEncoder Encoder => new()
+    {
+        Quantizer = new WebSafePaletteQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = KnownDitherings.Bayer4x4, ColorMatchingMode = ColorMatchingMode.Coarse })
+    };
+}

tests/ImageSharp.Benchmarks/Codecs/Gif/EncodeGif.cs

@@ -3,6 +3,7 @@
 
 using System.Drawing.Imaging;
 using BenchmarkDotNet.Attributes;
+using ImageMagick;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Gif;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing;
@@ -12,21 +13,17 @@ using SDImage = System.Drawing.Image;
 
 namespace SixLabors.ImageSharp.Benchmarks.Codecs;
 
-[Config(typeof(Config.Short))]
+public abstract class EncodeGif
-public class EncodeGif
 {
     // System.Drawing needs this.
     private FileStream bmpStream;
     private SDImage bmpDrawing;
     private Image<Rgba32> bmpCore;
+    private MagickImageCollection magickImage;
 
-    // Try to get as close to System.Drawing's output as possible
+    protected abstract GifEncoder Encoder { get; }
-    private readonly GifEncoder encoder = new()
-    {
-        Quantizer = new WebSafePaletteQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = KnownDitherings.Bayer4x4 })
-    };
 
-    [Params(TestImages.Bmp.Car, TestImages.Png.Rgb48Bpp)]
+    [Params(TestImages.Gif.Leo, TestImages.Gif.Cheers)]
     public string TestImage { get; set; }
 
     [GlobalSetup]
@@ -34,10 +31,14 @@ public class EncodeGif
     {
         if (this.bmpStream == null)
         {
-            this.bmpStream = File.OpenRead(Path.Combine(TestEnvironment.InputImagesDirectoryFullPath, this.TestImage));
+            string filePath = Path.Combine(TestEnvironment.InputImagesDirectoryFullPath, this.TestImage);
+            this.bmpStream = File.OpenRead(filePath);
             this.bmpCore = Image.Load<Rgba32>(this.bmpStream);
             this.bmpStream.Position = 0;
             this.bmpDrawing = SDImage.FromStream(this.bmpStream);
+
+            this.bmpStream.Position = 0;
+            this.magickImage = new MagickImageCollection(this.bmpStream);
         }
     }
 
@@ -48,6 +49,7 @@ public class EncodeGif
         this.bmpStream = null;
         this.bmpCore.Dispose();
         this.bmpDrawing.Dispose();
+        this.magickImage.Dispose();
     }
 
     [Benchmark(Baseline = true, Description = "System.Drawing Gif")]
@@ -61,6 +63,26 @@ public class EncodeGif
     public void GifImageSharp()
     {
         using MemoryStream memoryStream = new();
-        this.bmpCore.SaveAsGif(memoryStream, this.encoder);
+        this.bmpCore.SaveAsGif(memoryStream, this.Encoder);
     }
+
+    [Benchmark(Description = "Magick.NET Gif")]
+    public void GifMagickNet()
+    {
+        using MemoryStream ms = new();
+        this.magickImage.Write(ms, MagickFormat.Gif);
+    }
+}
+
+public class EncodeGif_DefaultEncoder : EncodeGif
+{
+    protected override GifEncoder Encoder => new();
+}
+
+public class EncodeGif_CoarsePaletteEncoder : EncodeGif
+{
+    protected override GifEncoder Encoder => new()
+    {
+        Quantizer = new WebSafePaletteQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = KnownDitherings.Bayer4x4, ColorMatchingMode = ColorMatchingMode.Coarse })
+    };
 }

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Gif/GifDecoderTests.cs

@@ -34,6 +34,41 @@ public class GifDecoderTests
         image.CompareToReferenceOutputMultiFrame(provider, ImageComparer.Exact);
     }
 
+    [Theory]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.AnimatedLoop, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.AnimatedLoopInterlaced, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void Decode_Animated<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage();
+        image.DebugSaveMultiFrame(provider);
+        image.CompareToReferenceOutputMultiFrame(provider, ImageComparer.Exact);
+    }
+
+    [Theory]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.AnimatedTransparentNoRestore, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.AnimatedTransparentRestorePrevious, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.AnimatedTransparentLoop, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.AnimatedTransparentFirstFrameRestorePrev, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void Decode_Animated_WithTransparency<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage();
+        image.DebugSaveMultiFrame(provider);
+        image.CompareToReferenceOutputMultiFrame(provider, ImageComparer.Exact);
+    }
+
+    [Theory]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.StaticNontransparent, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.StaticTransparent, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void Decode_Static_No_Animation<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage();
+        image.DebugSave(provider);
+        image.CompareFirstFrameToReferenceOutput(ImageComparer.Exact, provider);
+    }
+
     [Theory]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Issues.Issue2450_A, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Issues.Issue2450_B, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Gif/GifEncoderTests.cs

@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ public class GifEncoderTests
             {
                 // Use the palette quantizer without dithering to ensure results
                 // are consistent
-                Quantizer = new WebSafePaletteQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null })
+                Quantizer = new WebSafePaletteQuantizer(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null, TransparencyThreshold = 0 })
             };
 
             // Always save as we need to compare the encoded output.
@@ -419,4 +419,21 @@ public class GifEncoderTests
             }
         });
     }
+
+    [Theory]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Issues.Issue2866, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void GifEncoder_CanDecode_AndEncode_Issue2866<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage();
+
+        // Save the image for visual inspection.
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(image, "gif", new GifEncoder(), "animated");
+
+        // Now compare the debug output with the reference output.
+        // We do this because the gif encoding is lossy and encoding will lead to differences in the 10s of percent.
+        // From the unencoded image, we can see that the image is visually the same.
+        static bool Predicate(int i, int _) => i % 8 == 0; // Image has many frames, only compare a selection of them.
+        image.CompareDebugOutputToReferenceOutputMultiFrame(provider, ImageComparer.Exact, extension: "gif", predicate: Predicate);
+    }
 }

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Icon/Cur/CurEncoderTests.cs

@@ -4,6 +4,7 @@
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Cur;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Ico;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Png;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Tests.TestUtilities.ImageComparison;
 using static SixLabors.ImageSharp.Tests.TestImages.Cur;
@@ -49,8 +50,8 @@ public class CurEncoderTests
         using Image<TPixel> encoded = Image.Load<TPixel>(memStream);
         encoded.DebugSaveMultiFrame(provider);
 
-        // Despite preservation of the palette. The process can still be lossy
+        // Color palettes are not preserved when transcoding.
-        encoded.CompareToOriginalMultiFrame(provider, ImageComparer.TolerantPercentage(.23f), IcoDecoder.Instance);
+        encoded.CompareToOriginalMultiFrame(provider, ImageComparer.TolerantPercentage(.05F), IcoDecoder.Instance);
 
         for (int i = 0; i < image.Frames.Count; i++)
         {

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/Png/PngEncoderTests.cs

@@ -407,6 +407,7 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
     [WithFile(TestImages.Png.APng, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Png.DefaultNotAnimated, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Png.FrameOffset, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Png.Issue2882, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     public void Encode_APng<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
@@ -419,8 +420,8 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
 
         using Image<Rgba32> output = Image.Load<Rgba32>(memStream);
 
-        // some loss from original, due to compositing
+        // Some loss from original, due to palette matching accuracy.
-        ImageComparer.TolerantPercentage(0.01f).VerifySimilarity(output, image);
+        ImageComparer.TolerantPercentage(0.172F).VerifySimilarity(output, image);
 
         Assert.Equal(image.Frames.Count, output.Frames.Count);
 
@@ -443,6 +444,7 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
 
     [Theory]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Leo, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(TestImages.Gif.Issues.Issue2866, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     public void Encode_AnimatedFormatTransform_FromGif<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
     {
@@ -453,26 +455,30 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
 
         using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage(GifDecoder.Instance);
 
+        // Save the image for visual inspection.
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(image, "png", PngEncoder, "animated");
+
+        // Now compare the debug output with the reference output.
+        // We do this because the transcoding encoding is lossy and encoding will lead to differences.
+        // From the unencoded image, we can see that the image is visually the same.
+        static bool Predicate(int i, int _) => i % 8 == 0; // Image has many frames, only compare a selection of them.
+        image.CompareDebugOutputToReferenceOutputMultiFrame(provider, ImageComparer.Exact, extension: "png", encoder: PngEncoder, predicate: Predicate);
+
+        // Now save the image and load it again to compare the metadata.
         using MemoryStream memStream = new();
         image.Save(memStream, PngEncoder);
         memStream.Position = 0;
 
-        using Image<TPixel> output = Image.Load<TPixel>(memStream);
+        using Image<TPixel> encoded = Image.Load<TPixel>(memStream);
-
-        // TODO: Find a better way to compare.
-        // The image has been visually checked but the quantization pattern used in the png encoder
-        // means we cannot use an exact comparison nor replicate using the quantizing processor.
-        ImageComparer.TolerantPercentage(0.613f).VerifySimilarity(output, image);
-
         GifMetadata gif = image.Metadata.GetGifMetadata();
-        PngMetadata png = output.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
+        PngMetadata png = encoded.Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
 
         Assert.Equal(gif.RepeatCount, png.RepeatCount);
 
         for (int i = 0; i < image.Frames.Count; i++)
         {
             GifFrameMetadata gifF = image.Frames[i].Metadata.GetGifMetadata();
-            PngFrameMetadata pngF = output.Frames[i].Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
+            PngFrameMetadata pngF = encoded.Frames[i].Metadata.GetPngMetadata();
 
             Assert.Equal(gifF.FrameDelay, (int)(pngF.FrameDelay.ToDouble() * 100));
 
@@ -641,7 +647,7 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
         encoded.CompareToReferenceOutput(ImageComparer.Exact, provider);
     }
 
-    // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2469
+    // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2668
     [Theory]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Png.Issue2668, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     public void Issue2668_Quantized_Encode_Alpha<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
@@ -657,6 +663,39 @@ public partial class PngEncoderTests
         encoded.CompareToReferenceOutput(ImageComparer.Exact, provider);
     }
 
+    [Fact]
+    public void Issue_2862()
+    {
+        // Create a grayscale palette (or any other palette with colors that are very close to each other):
+        Rgba32[] palette = [.. Enumerable.Range(0, 256).Select(i => new Rgba32((byte)i, (byte)i, (byte)i))];
+
+        using Image<Rgba32> image = new(254, 4);
+        for (int y = 0; y < image.Height; y++)
+        {
+            for (int x = 0; x < image.Width; x++)
+            {
+                image[x, y] = palette[x];
+            }
+        }
+
+        PaletteQuantizer quantizer = new(
+            palette.Select(Color.FromPixel).ToArray(),
+            new QuantizerOptions() { ColorMatchingMode = ColorMatchingMode.Hybrid });
+
+        using MemoryStream ms = new();
+        image.Save(ms, new PngEncoder
+        {
+            ColorType = PngColorType.Palette,
+            BitDepth = PngBitDepth.Bit8,
+            Quantizer = quantizer
+        });
+
+        ms.Position = 0;
+
+        using Image<Rgba32> encoded = Image.Load<Rgba32>(ms);
+        ImageComparer.Exact.VerifySimilarity(image, encoded);
+    }
+
     private static void TestPngEncoderCore<TPixel>(
         TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider,
         PngColorType pngColorType,

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpCommonUtilsTests.cs

@@ -106,7 +106,7 @@ public class WebpCommonUtilsTests
             174, 183, 189, 255,
             148, 158, 158, 255,
         };
-        Span<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>((Span<byte>)rowBytes);
+        ReadOnlySpan<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>(rowBytes);
 
         bool noneOpaque;
         for (int length = 8; length < row.Length; length += 8)
@@ -188,7 +188,7 @@ public class WebpCommonUtilsTests
             174, 183, 189, 255,
             148, 158, 158, 255,
         };
-        Span<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>((Span<byte>)rowBytes);
+        ReadOnlySpan<Bgra32> row = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Bgra32>(rowBytes);
 
         bool noneOpaque;
         for (int length = 8; length < row.Length; length += 8)

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpDecoderTests.cs

@@ -450,6 +450,22 @@ public class WebpDecoderTests
         image.CompareToOriginal(provider, ReferenceDecoder);
     }
 
+    // https://github.com/SixLabors/ImageSharp/issues/2866
+    [Theory]
+    [WithFile(Lossy.Issue2866, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void WebpDecoder_CanDecode_Issue2866<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        // Web
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage(
+            WebpDecoder.Instance,
+            new WebpDecoderOptions() { BackgroundColorHandling = BackgroundColorHandling.Ignore });
+
+        // We can't use the reference decoder here.
+        // It creates frames of different size without blending the frames.
+        image.DebugSave(provider, extension: "webp", encoder: new WebpEncoder());
+    }
+
     [Theory]
     [WithFile(Lossless.LossLessCorruptImage3, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     public void WebpDecoder_ThrowImageFormatException_OnInvalidImages<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Formats/WebP/WebpEncoderTests.cs

@@ -8,6 +8,8 @@ using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Png;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Formats.Webp;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Metadata;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.PixelFormats;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing;
+using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Processing.Processors.Quantization;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Tests.TestUtilities;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Tests.TestUtilities.ImageComparison;
 using SixLabors.ImageSharp.Tests.TestUtilities.ReferenceCodecs;
@@ -110,6 +112,63 @@ public class WebpEncoderTests
         }
     }
 
+    [Theory]
+    // [WithFile(AlphaBlend, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    // [WithFile(AlphaBlend2, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    [WithFile(AlphaBlend3, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    // [WithFile(AlphaBlend4, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
+    public void Encode_AlphaBlended<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        using Image<TPixel> image = provider.GetImage();
+        WebpEncoder encoder = new()
+        {
+            FileFormat = WebpFileFormatType.Lossless
+        };
+
+        QuantizerOptions options = new()
+        {
+            TransparencyThreshold = 128 / 255F
+        };
+
+        // First save as gif to gif using different quantizers with default options.
+        // Alpha thresholding is 64/255F.
+        GifEncoder gifEncoder = new()
+        {
+            Quantizer = new OctreeQuantizer(options)
+        };
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(image, "gif", gifEncoder, "octree");
+
+        gifEncoder = new GifEncoder()
+        {
+            Quantizer = new WuQuantizer(options)
+        };
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(image, "gif", gifEncoder, "wu");
+
+        // Now clone and quantize the image using the same quantizers  without alpha thresholding and save as webp.
+        options = new()
+        {
+            TransparencyThreshold = 0
+        };
+
+        using Image<TPixel> cloned1 = image.Clone();
+        cloned1.Mutate(c => c.Quantize(new OctreeQuantizer(options)));
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(cloned1, "webp", encoder, "octree");
+
+        using Image<TPixel> cloned2 = image.Clone();
+        cloned2.Mutate(c => c.Quantize(new WuQuantizer(options)));
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(cloned2, "webp", encoder, "wu");
+
+        // Now blend the images with a blue background and save as webp.
+        using Image<Rgba32> background1 = new(image.Width, image.Height, Color.White.ToPixel<Rgba32>());
+        background1.Mutate(c => c.DrawImage(cloned1, 1));
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(background1, "webp", encoder, "octree-blended");
+
+        using Image<Rgba32> background2 = new(image.Width, image.Height, Color.White.ToPixel<Rgba32>());
+        background2.Mutate(c => c.DrawImage(cloned2, 1));
+        provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFile(background2, "webp", encoder, "wu-blended");
+    }
+
     [Theory]
     [WithFile(TestImages.Png.APng, PixelTypes.Rgba32)]
     public void Encode_AnimatedFormatTransform_FromPng<TPixel>(TestImageProvider<TPixel> provider)

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/Quantization/WuQuantizerTests.cs

@@ -79,7 +79,7 @@ public class WuQuantizerTests
         }
 
         Configuration config = Configuration.Default;
-        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null });
+        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null, TransparencyThreshold = 0 });
 
         ImageFrame<Rgba32> frame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
 
@@ -152,7 +152,7 @@ public class WuQuantizerTests
         }
 
         Configuration config = Configuration.Default;
-        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null });
+        WuQuantizer quantizer = new(new QuantizerOptions { Dither = null, TransparencyThreshold = 0 });
 
         ImageFrame<Rgba32> frame = image.Frames.RootFrame;
         using (IQuantizer<Rgba32> frameQuantizer = quantizer.CreatePixelSpecificQuantizer<Rgba32>(config))

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestImages.cs

@@ -76,6 +76,7 @@ public static class TestImages
         public const string FrameOffset = "Png/animated/frame-offset.png";
         public const string DefaultNotAnimated = "Png/animated/default-not-animated.png";
         public const string Issue2666 = "Png/issues/Issue_2666.png";
+        public const string Issue2882 = "Png/issues/Issue_2882.png";
 
         // Filtered test images from http://www.schaik.com/pngsuite/pngsuite_fil_png.html
         public const string Filter0 = "Png/filter0.png";
@@ -520,6 +521,31 @@ public static class TestImages
         public const string Bit18RGBCube = "Gif/18-bit_RGB_Cube.gif";
         public const string Global256NoTrans = "Gif/global-256-no-trans.gif";
 
+        // Test images from: https://github.com/peterdn/gif-test-suite.git
+        // Animated gif with 4 frames, looping forever, no transparency.
+        public const string AnimatedLoop = "Gif/animated_loop.gif";
+
+        // Animated gif with 4 frames, interlaced, looping forever, no transparency.
+        public const string AnimatedLoopInterlaced = "Gif/animated_loop_interlaced.gif";
+
+        // Transparent gif with 4 frames, loops forever.
+        public const string AnimatedTransparentLoop = "Gif/animated_transparent_loop.gif";
+
+        // Transparent gif with 4 frames, loops forever, first frame restore previous.
+        public const string AnimatedTransparentFirstFrameRestorePrev = "Gif/animated_transparent_firstframerestoreprev_loop.gif";
+
+        // Transparent gif with 4 transparent frames, loops forever, no dispose
+        public const string AnimatedTransparentNoRestore = "Gif/animated_transparent_frame_norestore_loop.gif";
+
+        // Transparent gif with 4 transparent frames, loops forever, restore previous.
+        public const string AnimatedTransparentRestorePrevious = "Gif/animated_transparent_frame_restoreprev_loop.gif";
+
+        // Static gif with no animation, no transparency.
+        public const string StaticNontransparent = "Gif/static_nontransparent.gif";
+
+        // Static transparent gif with no animation.
+        public const string StaticTransparent = "Gif/static_transparent.gif";
+
         // Test images from https://github.com/robert-ancell/pygif/tree/master/test-suite
         public const string ZeroSize = "Gif/image-zero-size.gif";
         public const string ZeroHeight = "Gif/image-zero-height.gif";
@@ -548,6 +574,7 @@ public static class TestImages
             public const string Issue2450_B = "Gif/issues/issue_2450_2.gif";
             public const string Issue2198 = "Gif/issues/issue_2198.gif";
             public const string Issue2758 = "Gif/issues/issue_2758.gif";
+            public const string Issue2866 = "Gif/issues/issue_2866.gif";
             public const string Issue2859_A = "Gif/issues/issue_2859_A.gif";
             public const string Issue2859_B = "Gif/issues/issue_2859_B.gif";
         }
@@ -842,7 +869,13 @@ public static class TestImages
             public const string Issue2670 = "Webp/issues/Issue2670.webp";
             public const string Issue2763 = "Webp/issues/Issue2763.png";
             public const string Issue2801 = "Webp/issues/Issue2801.webp";
+            public const string Issue2866 = "Webp/issues/Issue2866.webp";
         }
+
+        public const string AlphaBlend = "Webp/alpha-blend.webp";
+        public const string AlphaBlend2 = "Webp/alpha-blend-2.webp";
+        public const string AlphaBlend3 = "Webp/alpha-blend-3.webp";
+        public const string AlphaBlend4 = "Webp/alpha-blend-4.webp";
     }
 
     public static class Tiff

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestUtilities/ReferenceCodecs/MagickReferenceDecoder.cs

@@ -64,20 +64,27 @@ public class MagickReferenceDecoder : ImageDecoder
         settings.SetDefines(pngReadDefines);
 
         using MagickImageCollection magickImageCollection = new(stream, settings);
+        int imageWidth = magickImageCollection.Max(x => x.Width);
+        int imageHeight = magickImageCollection.Max(x => x.Height);
+
         List<ImageFrame<TPixel>> framesList = [];
         foreach (IMagickImage<ushort> magicFrame in magickImageCollection)
         {
-            ImageFrame<TPixel> frame = new(configuration, (int)magicFrame.Width, (int)magicFrame.Height);
+            ImageFrame<TPixel> frame = new(configuration, imageWidth, imageHeight);
             framesList.Add(frame);
 
-            MemoryGroup<TPixel> framePixels = frame.PixelBuffer.FastMemoryGroup;
+            Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> buffer = frame.PixelBuffer.GetRegion(
+                imageWidth - magicFrame.Width,
+                imageHeight - magicFrame.Height,
+                magicFrame.Width,
+                magicFrame.Height);
 
             using IUnsafePixelCollection<ushort> pixels = magicFrame.GetPixelsUnsafe();
             if (magicFrame.Depth is 12 or 10 or 8 or 6 or 5 or 4 or 3 or 2 or 1)
             {
                 byte[] data = pixels.ToByteArray(PixelMapping.RGBA);
 
-                FromRgba32Bytes(configuration, data, framePixels);
+                FromRgba32Bytes(configuration, data, buffer);
             }
             else if (magicFrame.Depth is 14 or 16 or 32)
             {
@@ -88,7 +95,7 @@ public class MagickReferenceDecoder : ImageDecoder
 
                 ushort[] data = pixels.ToShortArray(PixelMapping.RGBA);
                 Span<byte> bytes = MemoryMarshal.Cast<ushort, byte>(data.AsSpan());
-                FromRgba64Bytes(configuration, bytes, framePixels);
+                FromRgba64Bytes(configuration, bytes, buffer);
             }
             else
             {
@@ -111,33 +118,40 @@ public class MagickReferenceDecoder : ImageDecoder
             PixelType = metadata.GetDecodedPixelTypeInfo()
         };
     }
-
+    private static void FromRgba32Bytes<TPixel>(
-    private static void FromRgba32Bytes<TPixel>(Configuration configuration, Span<byte> rgbaBytes, IMemoryGroup<TPixel> destinationGroup)
+        Configuration configuration,
+        Span<byte> rgbaBytes,
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> destinationGroup)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, ImageSharp.PixelFormats.IPixel<TPixel>
     {
         Span<Rgba32> sourcePixels = MemoryMarshal.Cast<byte, Rgba32>(rgbaBytes);
-        foreach (Memory<TPixel> m in destinationGroup)
+        for (int y = 0; y < destinationGroup.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = m.Span;
+            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = destinationGroup.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromRgba32(
                 configuration,
                 sourcePixels[..destBuffer.Length],
                 destBuffer);
+
             sourcePixels = sourcePixels[destBuffer.Length..];
         }
     }
 
-    private static void FromRgba64Bytes<TPixel>(Configuration configuration, Span<byte> rgbaBytes, IMemoryGroup<TPixel> destinationGroup)
+    private static void FromRgba64Bytes<TPixel>(
+        Configuration configuration,
+        Span<byte> rgbaBytes,
+        Buffer2DRegion<TPixel> destinationGroup)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, ImageSharp.PixelFormats.IPixel<TPixel>
     {
-        foreach (Memory<TPixel> m in destinationGroup)
+        for (int y = 0; y < destinationGroup.Height; y++)
         {
-            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = m.Span;
+            Span<TPixel> destBuffer = destinationGroup.DangerousGetRowSpan(y);
             PixelOperations<TPixel>.Instance.FromRgba64Bytes(
                 configuration,
                 rgbaBytes,
                 destBuffer,
                 destBuffer.Length);
+
             rgbaBytes = rgbaBytes[(destBuffer.Length * 8)..];
         }
     }

tests/ImageSharp.Tests/TestUtilities/TestImageExtensions.cs

@@ -107,6 +107,7 @@ public static class TestImageExtensions
         ITestImageProvider provider,
         object testOutputDetails = null,
         string extension = "png",
+        IImageEncoder encoder = null,
         bool appendPixelTypeToFileName = true,
         Func<int, int, bool> predicate = null)
         where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
@@ -119,6 +120,7 @@ public static class TestImageExtensions
         provider.Utility.SaveTestOutputFileMultiFrame(
             image,
             extension,
+            encoder: encoder,
             testOutputDetails: testOutputDetails,
             appendPixelTypeToFileName: appendPixelTypeToFileName,
             predicate: predicate);
@@ -277,6 +279,47 @@ public static class TestImageExtensions
         return image;
     }
 
+    public static Image<TPixel> CompareDebugOutputToReferenceOutputMultiFrame<TPixel>(
+        this Image<TPixel> image,
+        ITestImageProvider provider,
+        ImageComparer comparer,
+        object testOutputDetails = null,
+        string extension = "png",
+        IImageEncoder encoder = null,
+        bool appendPixelTypeToFileName = true,
+        Func<int, int, bool> predicate = null)
+    where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        image.DebugSaveMultiFrame(
+            provider,
+            testOutputDetails,
+            extension,
+            encoder,
+            appendPixelTypeToFileName,
+            predicate: predicate);
+
+        using (Image<TPixel> debugImage = GetDebugOutputImageMultiFrame<TPixel>(
+            provider,
+            image.Frames.Count,
+            testOutputDetails,
+            extension,
+            appendPixelTypeToFileName,
+            predicate: predicate))
+
+        using (Image<TPixel> referenceImage = GetReferenceOutputImageMultiFrame<TPixel>(
+            provider,
+            image.Frames.Count,
+            testOutputDetails,
+            extension,
+            appendPixelTypeToFileName,
+            predicate: predicate))
+        {
+            comparer.VerifySimilarity(referenceImage, debugImage);
+        }
+
+        return image;
+    }
+
     public static Image<TPixel> CompareToReferenceOutputMultiFrame<TPixel>(
         this Image<TPixel> image,
         ITestImageProvider provider,
@@ -375,6 +418,54 @@ public static class TestImageExtensions
         return result;
     }
 
+    public static Image<TPixel> GetDebugOutputImageMultiFrame<TPixel>(
+        this ITestImageProvider provider,
+        int frameCount,
+        object testOutputDetails = null,
+        string extension = "png",
+        bool appendPixelTypeToFileName = true,
+        Func<int, int, bool> predicate = null)
+        where TPixel : unmanaged, IPixel<TPixel>
+    {
+        (int Index, string FileName)[] frameFiles = [.. provider.Utility.GetTestOutputFileNamesMultiFrame(
+            frameCount,
+            extension,
+            testOutputDetails,
+            appendPixelTypeToFileName,
+            predicate: predicate)];
+
+        List<Image<TPixel>> temporaryFrameImages = [];
+
+        IImageDecoder decoder = TestEnvironment.GetReferenceDecoder(frameFiles[0].FileName);
+
+        for (int i = 0; i < frameFiles.Length; i++)
+        {
+            string path = frameFiles[i].FileName;
+            if (!File.Exists(path))
+            {
+                throw new FileNotFoundException("Reference output file missing: " + path);
+            }
+
+            using FileStream stream = File.OpenRead(path);
+            Image<TPixel> tempImage = decoder.Decode<TPixel>(DecoderOptions.Default, stream);
+            temporaryFrameImages.Add(tempImage);
+        }
+
+        Image<TPixel> firstTemp = temporaryFrameImages[0];
+
+        Image<TPixel> result = new(firstTemp.Width, firstTemp.Height);
+
+        foreach (Image<TPixel> fi in temporaryFrameImages)
+        {
+            result.Frames.AddFrame(fi.Frames.RootFrame);
+            fi.Dispose();
+        }
+
+        // Remove the initial empty frame:
+        result.Frames.RemoveFrame(0);
+        return result;
+    }
+
     public static IEnumerable<ImageSimilarityReport> GetReferenceOutputSimilarityReports<TPixel>(
         this Image<TPixel> image,
         ITestImageProvider provider,

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/BmpEncoderTests/Encode_8BitColor_WithOctreeQuantizer_rgb32.bmp

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+oid sha256:a98b1ec707af066f77fad7d1a64b858d460986beb6d27682717dd5e221310fd4
 size 9270

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/ApplyDitherFilterInBox_Rgba32_CalliphoraPartial - Copy.png

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+oid sha256:a899a84c6af24bfad89f9fde75957c7a979d65bcf096ab667cb976efd71cb560
+size 271171

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Atkinson.png

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+oid sha256:e44c49a8f2ab1280c38e6ba71da29a93803b2aa4cf117e1e919909521b0373e6
-size 57657
+size 57636

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Burks.png

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+oid sha256:359a44bb957481c85d5acd65559b43ffc0acf806d4f4e57d6a791ca65b28295b
-size 59838
+size 59839

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_FloydSteinberg.png

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+oid sha256:7fb3743098a8147fd24294d933d93a61ec0155d754f52544650f6589719905be
 size 60688

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_JarvisJudiceNinke.png

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+oid sha256:41fa7d92a10db450f3b3729ab9e36074224baaefeda21cffd0466e37a111e138
-size 58963
+size 59113

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Sierra2.png

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-size 58985
+size 58976

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Sierra3.png

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-size 59202
+size 59203

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DiffusionFilter_WorksWithAllErrorDiffusers_CalliphoraPartial_Stucki.png

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-size 58855
+size 58934

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DitherFilter_ShouldNotDependOnSinglePixelType_Bgra32_filter0.png

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-size 871
+size 870

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DitherFilter_ShouldNotDependOnSinglePixelType_Rgb24_filter0.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DitherFilter_ShouldNotDependOnSinglePixelType_Rgba32_filter0.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DitherFilter_ShouldNotDependOnSinglePixelType_RgbaVector_filter0.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DitherFilter_WorksWithAllDitherers_CalliphoraPartial_Bayer16x16.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/DitherTests/DitherFilter_WorksWithAllDitherers_CalliphoraPartial_Bayer8x8.png

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+size 51461

tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/GifDecoderTests/Decode_Animated_Rgba32_animated_loop.gif/00.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/GifDecoderTests/Decode_Animated_Rgba32_animated_loop.gif/01.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/GifDecoderTests/Decode_Animated_Rgba32_animated_loop.gif/02.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/GifDecoderTests/Decode_Animated_Rgba32_animated_loop_interlaced.gif/00.png

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tests/Images/External/ReferenceOutput/GifDecoderTests/Decode_Animated_WithTransparency_Rgba32_animated_transparent_firstframerestoreprev_loop.gif/00.png

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